Gland an organ which secretes particular chemical substances for use in the body or for discharge

into the surroundings.

There are three types gland in our body
a. Endocrine glands: Glands that secrete their product (hormone) directly into the blood rather
than through a duct
Example: Pituitary gland, Thyroid gland, Adrenal gland.
b. Exocrine glands :Exocrine glands are glands that secrete their product into ducts
Example: Sweat gland, Salivary gland, Mammary gland, Liver.
c. Heterocrine glands: These are the glands that performs both exocrine and endocrine function.
For example pancreas
Chemical Nature of Hormone
1. Lipid soluble hormone: They are poorly soluble in water. So they cannot be dissolved in
watery blood. They bind to plasma protein and present in the blood in protein bound form
they are called lipid soluble
Examples; Hormones that are steroids, thyroid hormone and nitric oxide.

2. Water soluble Hormone: The water soluble hormone They are transported simply
dissolved in blood.
Example: Hormones that are amine hormones, peptide and protein hormone and eicosanoid
hormones

Endocrine glands are ductless glands that send their secretion into the blood. The secretions
are called Hormone. The word hormone is derived from the word hormon meaning to excite
or get moving
Hormones are classified as according to their chemical nature
 Protein hormones
1. Range from 3 amino acids to hundreds of amino acids in size.
2. Peptide/protein hormones are water soluble
3. Examples: Somatotrophic, thyrotrophic and gonadotrophic hormones secreted by the
anterior lobe of pituitary gland and insulin hormone secreted by pancreas
 Amine hormones
There are two groups of hormones derived from the amino acid tyrosine - Thyroid hormones
and Catecholamines
1. Thyroid hormones are basically a "double" tyrosine with the critical incorporation of 3 or
4 iodine atoms. Thyroid hormone is produced by the thyroid gland and is lipid soluble
2. Catecholamines are both neurohormones and neurotransmitters. These include epinephrine
and norepinephrine. Both are produced by the adrenal medulla, water soluble and secreted
like peptide hormones
 Steroid hormones
1. All steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol and differ only in the ring structure and
side chains attached to it. Eg: aldosterone
2. All steroid hormones are lipid soluble. Eg: testosterone, progesterone
 Fatty Acid Derivatives – Eicosanoids
 1. Eicosanoids are a large group of molecules derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids. The
principal groups of hormones of this class are prostaglandins, prostacyclin, and
thromboxanes.
2. Arachidonic acid is the most abundant precursor for these hormones. Stores of arachidonic
acid are present in membrane lipids and released through the action of various lipases.

HYPOTHLAMUS

Part of brain Present in the posterior part of the forebrain Present in the posterior part of
the forebrain Connects the midbrain with the cerebral hemisphere Encloses the third
ventricle
The hypothalamus has three regions.
a. Anterior region
b. Middle region
c. Posterior region

FUNCTIONS
1. Releasing hormones
2. Maintaining daily physiology cycles
3. Managing sexual behavior
4. Controlling appetite
5. Regulating emotional responses
6. Regulating body temperature
7. Role in circadian rhythm

Hormones released from Hypothalamus

• Corticotrophin-releasing hormone-(CRH)- Is involved in the body’s response to both
physical and emotional stress
• It stimulates anterior pituitary gland to produce ACTH
• Gonadotropin- releasing hormone (GRH)- It causes the pituitary gland to produce
important reproductive hormones, such as FSH and LH
• Thyrotropin- releasing hormone (TRH)- Production of TRH stimulates the pituitary gland
to produce TSH
• Somatostatin- It works to stop the pituitary gland from releasing certain hormones including
growth hormone and TSH
• Oxytocin- It controls maternal behavior, it involved in reproductive system, such as
childbirth, and lactation
• Growth hormone releasing hormone- It stimulates the pituitary gland to produce growth
hormone. This is responsible for growth and development,
• Vasopressin- Also called antidiuretic hormone(ADH), it regulates water levels in the body.
HYPOTHALAMIC DYSFUNCTION
Hypothalamic dysfunction plays a role in many conditions, including
1. Diabetes Insipidus:
If the hypothalamus does not produce and release enough vasopressin, the kidneys can
remove too much water. This causes increased urination and thirst.
2. Disytrophia adiposogenitalis:
Characterized by increased appetite and depressed secretion of gonadotrophin
Obesity and sexual infantilism
Associated with dwarfism
It is also called Froehlich’s syndrome
3. Kallmann's syndrome:
• It is a genetic disorder characterized by hypogonadism associated with anosmia (loss of
olfactory sensation)
• Puberty failure
• Lack of testicle development in men
• Failure to start menstruation in women
• Infertility
• It is also called hypogonadotropic hypogonadism since it occurs due to deficiency of GnRH
released by hypothalamus
PITUITARY GLAND
“The Master gland of the body”
Pituitary gland is the small structure in the brain and main endocrine gland
The normal adult pituitary gland is a reddish-grey bean shaped gland
It is also called the Master gland because it produces the hormones that control other glands
and many body functions including growth.
Anatomy of Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is a pea sized, weighs 500g located at the base of brain.
It is 1 cm in diameter.
The pituitary gland lies in the Hypophyseal fossa (Sella turcica) of the sphenoid bone below
the hypothalamus.
A fold of durameter covers the pituitary gland has an opening for the passage of
infundibulum (stalk) connecting the gland to the hypothalamus

Division of pituitary gland

Pituitary gland secretes the following hormones:
1. Growth hormone (GH or STH)
2. Adreno corticotropic hormone (ACTH)
3. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
4. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
5. Luteinising hormone (LH)
6. Luteotropic hormone (LTH)
7. Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
8. Vasopressin and
9. Oxytocin
Growth Hormone or Somatotropic Hormone (GH or STH)
1. Growth hormone is secreted by the acidophil cells (somatotrophs) of adenohypophysis (an-
terior lobe)
2. It is a protein and is formed of a straight polypeptide chain having about 200 amino acids.
3. It stimulates the multiplication of cells.
4. It increases the body growth.
5. It stimulates the growth of muscles.
6. It stimulates the growth of thymus.
7. It increases the secretion of milk during lactation.
8. STH has a remarkable effect on metabolism.
9. It increases protein synthesis.
10. It increases the release of fatty acids from the adipose tissue and therefore increases the fatty
acid concentration in the body fluids this in turn increases the use of fatty acids for supplying energy
to the body
11. STH decreases the utilization of carbohydrate for energy. It stimulates storage of car-
bohydrate. Glycogen is stored in the cells until the cells become saturated
12. Administration of STH produces hyperglycaemia and glycosuria (high sugar level). The high
blood glucose level leads to overproduction of insulin by Islet of Langerhans and finally to their
exhaustion and atrophy. So, the growth hormone is diabetogenic
13. GH increases intestinal absorption of calcium as well as its excretion. In addition to calcium,
Na, K, Mg, PO4 and chloride are also retained.
14. Over secretion of this hormone in the child causes gigantism and acromegaly in the adult.
15. Hypo activity causes dwarfism.
Gigantism
Gigantism is a disorder caused by the over activity of pituitary gland in the child. This leads to over
secretion of growth hormone

Gigantism has the following symptoms:

1. The body is tall (7 to 8 feet).
2. The visceral organs are proportionately large.
3. The thyroid becomes enlarged and hyperactive.
4. Adrenal cortex becomes hyperactive.
5. The gonads become hyperactive at first and then may atrophy owing to overwork and exhaustion.
6. Hyperglycaemia and glycosuria are produced.
7. Basal metabolic rate is increased.
8. Sweating is increased.
9. Vision is disturbed and voice becomes deep.
10. The affected persons exhibit drowsiness and lethargy.
11. The males are sometimes impotent.
12. The females become sterile. They develop menstrual disturbances. The
breasts fail to develop.

Acromegaly
Acromegaly is a hormonal disorder caused by the hyperactivity of pituitary gland due to a Pi-
tuitary tumour It is due to the over secretion of growth hormone after puberty. It is char-
acterised by shortening of bones and broadening of hands and feet
1. The name acromegaly comes from Greek, Acro meaning extremities and megaly meaning
Enlargement. It is characterised by the abnormal growth of the hands and feet, swelling of the hands
and feet. The patient can notice the change in gold ring size and the shoe size, particularly shoe
width.
2. The eyebrow and lower jaw protrude; the nasal bone enlarges and the teeth space out.
3. Overgrowth of bone and cartilage leads to arthritis and joint aches.
4. Acromegaly is characterised by the over growth of the two jaws, the molar bones and the su-
praorbital ridges. Thickening of skin with thick nose and lips..
5. The hands and feet are enlarged. Develop polydactyly.
6. Bowing of the spine is another symptom.
7. The anteroposterior diameter of the chest is increased.
8. Owing to the above abnormal skeletal growths, the affected person assumes a primitive man or
gorilla
9. The subcutaneous tissues of the hands, feet, scalp, nose, lips and the skin increase in amount. The
tongue also becomes enlarged due to the same cause
10. Hyperglycaemia and glycosuria are produced.
11. Basal metabolic rate is increased.
12. Sweating is increased.
13. The visceral organs concerned with metabolism such as heart, lung kidney, pancreas, spleen,
etc. are enlarged.
14. The thyroid gland is enlarged and hyperactive.
15. Adrenal cortex becomes hyperactive.
16. The gonads become hyperactive at first and then may atrophy due to overwork and
exhaustion’s
17. The vision is disturbed, the voice becomes deep, headache, etc.
18. The affected persons exhibit drowsiness and lethargy.
19. The males are sometimes impotent.
20. The females become sterile. They develop menstrual disturbances. The breasts fail to develop
21. Erectile dysfunction in men.

Dwarfism…
Dwarfism is caused by the hypo activity of the pituitary in the child. There are two types of
dwarfs.
They are: 1. Lorain-Levy type 2. Frohlich’s type
Lorain-Levy Type
1. Lorain type of dwarf is produced by the hypo activity of acidophil cells.
2. They have stunted growth. The adults grow only up to 3 feet high.
3. Sex organs and secondary sexual characters do not develop. Hence an adult man of 30
years looks like a child of 3 years
4. Intelligence is normal and is proportionate to age.
5. Metabolism is normal
Froehlich’s Type
1. This type of dwarfism is produced in both children and adults by a tumour of the inactive
chromophobe cells and hence their hypo activity
2. It is characterised by stunted growth.
3. Such dwarfs are idiots.
4. Sexual and secondary sexual characters do not develop
5. Generalised obesity is a common symptom in children.
6. The appearance of affected males resembles that of females.
7. in the adult’s sex organs degenerate.
8. Males and females exhibit adiposity.

TSH is secreted by the anterior lobe of pituitary gland. It is a glycoprotein. It is stimulates

thyroid gland
Adreno Corticotropic Hormone or ACTH
ACTH is secreted by the anterior lobe of pituitary gland. It is a protein hormone. It
stimulates the activity of the adrenal cortex, inducing the secretion of glucocorticoids.
Deficiency causes rheumatoid fever, Addison's disease, etc.
Thyrotropin or Thyroid Stimulating Hormone or TSH
. TSH is secreted by the anterior lobe of pituitary gland. It is a glycoprotein. It is stimulates
thyroid gland there by increasing the thyroxine secretion.
Follicle Stimulating Hormone or FSH
FSH is secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. It is a glycoprotein. In
females, it increases the size and number of Graafian follicles. In males, it stimulates the
testis for spermatogenesis
Luteinising Hormone (LH) or Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH)
1. LH is a gonadotropic hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of pituitary.
2. It is a glycoprotein with a molecular weight of about 3000 Daltons.
3. It makes the Graafian follicles grow and mature.
4. It causes the Graafian follicles to secrete another sex hormone called oestrogen.
 5. In co-operation with FSH, it causes the rupture of the follicle and ovulation.
6. LH causes the appearance, growth and persistence of corpus luteum in the ovary
7. In the male, LH stimulates the interstitial cells of testis and consequently the production of
androgen
Lactogenic Hormone or Prolactin or Luteotropic Hormone (LTH)
1. LTH is secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
2. It is a protein with several disulphide bridges. It has a molecular weight of about
25000 daltons
3. It helps in initiating milk secretion in the breast.
4. It stimulates the proliferation of the glandular elements of mammary glands during preg-
nancy And thus help to complete the development of breasts.
5. It helps the corpus luteum in the secretion of progesterone, in co-operation with LH.
Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone or MSH
Formerly it was known as intermedin because it is secreted by pars intermedia. In most
Vertebrates, melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) peptides are secreted specifically by
Intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland and function primarily in skin darkening.

Vasopressin or Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

1. Vasopressin is secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland
2. Chemically, vasopressin is a protein formed of eight amino acids with a di sulphide
(S-S) bond.
3. It has a molecular weight of 1100 Daltons
4. Vasopressin is released in response to stress dehydration.
5. It constricts arterioles and capillaries, causing the raise of blood pressure.
6. The rate of heartbeat is reflexively reduced owing to high blood pressure
7. It stimulates the nephron to reabsorb water from the urine and thus it reduces
the volume of urine formed. Hence this hormone is commonly called Antidiu-
retic hormone (ADH).
8. It reduces chloride absorption and thus chloride loss.
9. It causes the contraction of the plain muscles of urinary bladder, ureter, and stomach
and intestine it cannot cause the contraction of the muscles of heart and uterus.
10. It produces glycogenolysis, hyperglycaemia and glycosuria Sugar tolerance is re-
duced.
.
11. Deficiency of this hormone produces large volume of urine that is about 40 litres
In a day this defect is called diabetes insipidus

Oxytocin
1. Oxytocin is secreted by the neurohypophysis.
2. Chemically, oxytocin is a protein formed of eight amino acids with a disul-
phide (S-S) bond.
3. It has a molecular weight of 1000 daltons.
4. The term oxytocin is derived from Greek, meaning quick child birth It causes
contraction of the pregnant uterus. Oxytocin takes part in the onset of par-
turition expulsion of the foetus and placenta
5. It causes the contraction of the mammary glands resulting in the ejection of
milk
 THYROID GLAND
The thyroid gland is one of the largest endocrine glands in the body Consists of two connected
lobes

Control the metabolic rate,protein synthesis, and control the body's sensitivity to other
hormones

LOCATION

Situated in the neck region in front of the larynx and trachea. The gland is made up of two lobes
of thick red glandular tissue jointed together by a narrow strip or bridge called isthmus. Two
lobes are connected by a narrow isthmus in front of the trachea.

STRUCTURE
The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped organ with two lobes, one on the right and the left as the
wings. Each lobe is about 5 cm long, 3 cm wide and 2 cm thick, with isthmus about 1.25 cm in
length The lobes are asymmetrical with the right lobe usually larger. The thyroid gland is covered
by a thin fibrous sheath, the capsule of the thyroid. The capsule enters into the gland and forms
the septum that divides the thyroid into microscopic lobules
Hormones of the Thyroid gland
The Thyroid gland secretes 3 types of hormones. They are:
1. Thyroxine (T4)
2. Tri-iodo thyronine (T3)
3. Calcitonin

Thyroxine and tri-iodo thyronine are stored inside the thyroid follicles in binding with a storage
Protein called thyroglobulin. Thyroid hormones contain iodine. So, the synthesis of thyroid
hormone needs iodine. The daily requirement of iodine is 100 to 150 mg. But during pregnancy,
Puberty and stress conditions, the iodine requirement is more. Deficiency of iodine leads to
Hyperplasia and goitre.

Iodine is a scarce element on the earth. It is taken in with the food. In the mountainous region, there
is deficiency of iodine in food and water, so the incidence of goitre is higher in mountainous regions.

1. Thyroxine
It is an iodine containing thyroid hormone, secreted by thyroid gland. It is a protein hormone.
Chemically it is an iodinated tyrosine. It has the following functions:
a. In amphibians, thyroxine brings about metamorphosis.
b. In the case of reptiles, thyroxine induces moulting.
c. In mammals, thyroxine improves growth.
d. It increases basal metabolic rate (BMR). Hence it stimulates the production of more energy.
e. It improves growth.
f. It stimulates protein synthesis.
g. It increases the absorption of monosaccharides.
h. Deficiency of this hormone in children causes cretinism. Cretinism is characterised by retarded
Growth, disproportionate sizes of the various parts of the body, extremely low mentality and under
development of secondary sexual characters. A cretin (affected man) of 30 years looks like a boy
Of 4 or 5 years.
i. In an adult deficiency causes myxoedema. It is characterised by swelling of certain parts of skin,
low BMR, low body temperature, undue sensitivity of cold, anaemia, etc.
j. Overactivity of thyroid gland or hyperthyroidism leads to a disease called exophthalmic goitre.
It is characterised by considerable enlargement and protrusion of the gland below the chin,
Increased pulse rate and nervousness, bulging of the eyes etc.
About 90% of the hormone secreted by the thyroid gland is thyroxine and 10% is tri-iodo thyronine.
However, a considerable portion of the thyroxine is converted into tri-iodo thyronine. The functions
Of these hormones are qualitatively the same. Tri-iodo thyronine is about 4 times as potent thyroxine

2. Thyrocalcitonin

Thyrocalcitonin is secreted by the thyroid gland. It is secreted by the para follicular cells (C-cells)
of the thyroid gland. It is a protein hormone containing 32 amino acids. It does not contain iodine.
Calcitonin decreases blood calcium ion concentration. It reduces plasma calcium concentration
in three ways:

a. It decreases the activity of osteoblasts.

b. It increases osteoblastic effect.
c. It prevents the formation of new osteoblasts

HYPER SECRETION AND HYPOSEC

CRETINISM
Cretinism is a disease produced in children as a result of hypothyroidism. The child affected by
Cretinism is called a cretin. The symptoms do not appear until the age of 6 months because enough
Hormone is present in mother's milk. Cretinism is characterised by the following symptoms:

1. The mile stones of child's development, such as holding up the head (3 months), closure of
anterior fontanelle (5 months), sitting and dentition (6-7 months), standing, walking, speech (12-18
months), etc. are delayed

2. Cretins are short owing to stunted growth.

3. Fingers are club-like.
4. Bones and teeth are deformed.
5. The skin is rough, thick, dry and wrinkled.
6. Hairs are scanty on the skin.
7. Face is bloated and has an idiotic look.
8. The tongue is protruding and saliva is dribbling.
9. The belly is pot-like and the umbilicus is protruding.
10. Cretins are idiots.
11. They are often deaf and dumb.
12. The sex glands, sex organs and secondary sexual characters are retarded.
13. Appetite is reduced.
14. Motility of the of the gastro-intestinal tract is reduced and there is often
Constipation.
15. Basal metabolic rate is lowered by 20 to 40%.
16. The body temperature is low.
17. The blood contains low level of sugar and iodine and high level of cholesterol.
18. Resistance is lowered.
19.Cretins are susceptible to cold, toxins and infections.

MYXOEDEMA

(Gull's Disease) Myxoedema is a disease produced in adults as a result of hypothyroidism. This

disease occurs 7 to 8 times more frequently in females than in males. Recessive genes are also of
some importance in the production of hypothyroidism. Myxoedema is characterised by the
following symptoms:

1. Face is swollen and puffy causing Mongoloid appearance

2. The whole body swells.
3. The swelling of the face and the body is due to the deposition of myxomatous tissue. The
myxomatous tissue consists of a semifluid substance rich in proteins and mucopolysaccharides.
4. Hairs fall out from axilla, pubis, head and one third of outer eyebrows.
5. Tongue and larynx swell causing hoarseness and slow-slurring speech.
6. Sex degenerates.
7. Impotency and amenorrhoea occur.
8. Mental conditions are impaired. Dullness, loss of memory and somnolence occur.
9. Appetite is reduced.
10. Motility of gastrointestinal tract is lowered and constipation often occurs
11. BMR is lowered by 30% to 45%.
12. Body temperature is low.
13. The patient is susceptible to cold.
14. Blood sugar and iodine levels are low. But cholesterol level is raised.
15. Heart beat rate is low. Stroke volume and minute volume are less. The cardiac output is also
low.
16. Respiratory rates are reduced.

EXOPHTHALMIC GOITRE (GRAVES' DISEASE)

Grave's disease is an auto immune disease characterised by a metabolic imbalance resulting from
over production of thyroid hormone. It was discovered by Robert James Graves (1835) and hence
the name. It is also called Basedow's disease because symptoms were also reported by Basedow in 1940

Grave's disease can affect many parts of the body such as nervous system, eyes, skin, hair, nails,
lungs, digestive system, muscles, bones and reproductive system.

Graves disease is also called exophthalmic goitre as this disease is mainly characterised by the
enlargement of thyroid gland and the protrusion of eyes. The following are the symptoms:

1. The thyroid gland is enlarged.

2. The eye balls are protruded with a staring look and less twinkling of the eyes It is caused by the
deposition of fat in the ocular region especially in the eye muscles and degeneration of eye muscles.
3. The body temperature is raised.
4. The fat deposits are depleted and the body loses weight.
5. The patients are emotional and restless.
6. Osteoporosis occurs in the skeleton owing to excessive loss of calcium and potassium.
7. The skin becomes soft, moist and flushed owing to vasodilation, a means for heat loss.
8. Blood sugar level and iodine level are raised but cholesterol level is lowered.
9. Glycogen levels of liver and heart are reduced.
10. Heartbeat rate increases. Cardiac output and work of heart are increased.
11. BMR is increased.
12. Vitamin requirements, especially for A, B and C are increased.
13. The patients are sensitive to heat and susceptible to infection.
PARATHYROID GLAND

The parathyroid glands are situated in the thyroid gland in the form of four patches. Each
parathyroid gland is surrounded by a connective tissue called capsule. The hormone secreted by
parathyroid gland is called parathormone or PTH.

Functions of PTH

Parathormone was prepared by J.D. Collip in 1925. It is a protein hormone made up of only one
polypeptide chain. Parathormone has several biological actions.

1. PTH increases serum calcium level by acting on osteoblasts of bone.

2. It increases renal tubular reabsorption of calcium.
3. It may increase the rate of Calcium absorption in the gut.
4. It reduces the secretion of Calcium by the mammary gland.
5. It may also control intracellular deposition of phosphate.
6. Vitamin D is metabolised to its functional form by PTH.

Disorders of Parathyroid Gland

1. Removal of parathyroid gland (extirpation) or the hyposecretion of the gland causes tetany. It
has the following symptoms:
2. Locking of the jaws.
3. Twitching of the muscles.
4. Fall of calcium in blood serum from 1mg to 6 mg% and raise of inorganic phosphate in blood.
5. Respiration becomes rapid and noisy.
6. Heart beat rate increased.
7. It increases salivation and body temperature. The ultimate result is death owing to asphyxia.

Hypersecretion has the following characteristics

Weakness, loss of muscular tone, renal disorder, vomiting, thirst, mental symptoms, polyuria and
formation of bone-cysts.

ADRENAL GLAND
The adrenal glands are located on both sides of the body, slightly medial to the kidneys. Each adrenal
gland has two distinct parts, each with a unique function, the outer adrenal cortex and the inner medulla,
both of which produce hormones.

Adrenal cortex

The adrenal cortex is the outer region and also the largest part of an adrenal gland. It is divided into
three separate zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each layer has a distinct
appearance, and different function

Zona glomerulosa

The outermost zone of the adrenal cortex is the zona glomerulosa. It lies immediately under the fibrous
capsule of the gland. Cells in this layer form oval groups, separated by thin strands of connective tissue
from the fibrous capsule of the gland and carry wide capillaries.

This layer is the main site for production of aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, Aldosterone plays an
important role in the long-term regulation of blood pressure. and electrolyte balance

Zona fasciculata

The zona fasciculata is situated between the zona glomerulosa and zona reticularis. Cells in this layer
are responsible for producing glucocorticoids such as cortisol. It is the largest of the three layers,
accounting for nearly 80% of the volume of the cortex. In the zona fasciculata, cells are arranged in
columns radially oriented towards the medulla. The glucocorticoids cortisol and cortisone are
synthesized in the zona fasciculata; their functions include the regulation of metabolism and immune
system suppression

Zona reticularis

The innermost cortical layer, the zona reticularis, lies directly adjacent to the medulla. It
produces androgens, mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA sulfate (DHEA-S),
and androstenedione (the precursor to testosterone) in humans. Its small cells form irregular cords and
clusters, separated by capillaries and connective tissue. The cells contain relatively small quantities of
cytoplasm and lipid droplets, and sometimes display brown lipofuscin pigment.

Medulla

The adrenal medulla is at the centre of each adrenal gland, and is surrounded by the adrenal cortex.
The chromaffin cells of the medulla are the body's main source of the catecholamines, such as
adrenaline and noradrenaline, released by the medulla. Approximately 20% noradrenaline
(norepinephrine) and 80% adrenaline (epinephrine) are secreted here.
Secretion and function of adrenal gland hormones

Corticosteroids

Corticosteroids are a group of steroid hormones produced from the cortex of the adrenal gland
• Mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone regulate salt ("mineral") balance and blood pressure
• Glucocorticoids such as cortisol influence metabolism rates of proteins, fats and sugars ("glucose").
• Androgens such as dehydroepiandrosterone.

Glucocorticoids

1. Glucocorticoids are a group of steroid hormones secreted by adrenal cortex.

2. They contain 21 carbon atoms.
3. There are four types of glucocorticoids, namely
Cortisol, Cortisone, 17-Hydroxy corticosterone and 11 - Dehydroxy corticosterone.
4. Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid in humans. In species that do not create cortisol, this role is
played by corticosterone instead.
5. The main role of glucocorticoids is concerned with carbohydrate metabolism and hence the
name glucocorticoid.
6. It stimulates the formation of glycogen in the liver (similar to insulin) through glycogenesis.
7. It increases gluconeogenesis in the liver especially from protein.
8. It depresses glucose uptake and oxidation by tissues.
9. It helps in the absorption of glucose from intestine and nephron.
10. Cortisol raises blood pyruvate level and helps in the synthesis of glucose from pyruvate in the
liver.
11. Deficiency of cortisol produces hypoglycaemia and increases sensitivity to insulin. Excess of
cortisol produces hyperglycaemia and depresses sensitivity to insulin.
12. It increases rate of deamination and breakdown of tissue proteins.
13. Excess of cortisol leads to wasting of muscles, osteoporosis and increased excretion of creatine
and uric acid in the urine.
14. They stimulate absorption of lipid from the intestine.
15. They cause dissolution of lymphocytes and lymphoid tissue and involution of thymus.
16. They have an antieosinophilic action.
17. They protect the body against stress.
18. Excess of cortisol causes osteoporosis due to decalcification and interference in formation of
protein matrix.

Mineralocorticoids

1. They are steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex.

2. There are three types of mineralocorticoids, namely a. Aldosterone b. Deoxycorticosterone or
Deoxycortone c. Hydroxy-deoxycorticosterone.
3. The main function of mineralocorticoid is concerned with regulation of salt ("mineral") balance
and blood volume and hence the name mineralocorticoid.
4. In the kidneys, aldosterone acts on the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting ducts by
increasing the reabsorption of sodium and the excretion of both potassium and hydrogen ions.
Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of about 2% of filtered glomerular filtrate.
Sodium retention is also a response of the distal colon and sweat glands to aldosterone receptor
stimulation. Angiotensin II and extracellular potassium are the two main regulators of
aldosterone production. The amount of sodium present in the body affects the extracellular
volume, which in turn influences blood pressure. Therefore, the effects of aldosterone in
sodium retention are important for the regulation of blood pressure.
5. Total loss of adrenocortical secretion usually causes death within 3 days to two weeks unless
the person receives extensive salt therapy or mineralocorticoid therapy. Therefore,
mineralocorticoids are described as life-saving hormones.
6. They help to reabsorb NaCl and H2O from the renal tubules.
7. They cause increased excretion of K.
8. They lower intracellular K, but raise Na.
9. Mineralocorticoids provide resistance against various stress such as low temperature, low O2
pressure, mental and physical strain, etc.
10. Mineralocorticoids increase the volume of extracellular fluid and blood.
11. They greatly enhance the absorption of Na by the intestine.
12. They influence sweat glands to retain Na but to secrete K through sweat

Androgens

Cells in zona reticularis of the adrenal glands produce male sex hormones, or androgens, the most
important of which is DHEA. In general, these hormones do not have an overall effect in the male body,
and are converted to more potent androgens such as testosterone and DHT or to estrogens (female sex
hormones) in the gonads, acting in this way as a metabolic intermediate.

Adrenal Medulla

Adrenal medulla is the central part of adrenal gland. It is derived from neural crest cells. It is formed of
polyhedral cells. They can be stained with chromic acid; hence they are called chromaffin cells. Adrenal
medulla secretes two types of hormones which are chemically catecholamines. They are: 1. Adrenaline
(Epinephrine). 2. Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine). Actions of adrenaline and noradrenaline are
responsible for the fight or flight response

Adrenaline (Epinephrine)

1. It is secreted by the adrenal medulla.

2. Chemically, it is a catecholamine and is closely related to tyrosine and phenylalanine (amino
acids).
3. This hormone is produced and effective under emergency conditions. Hence, this hormone is
called emergency hormone. It is secreted in times of stress, emotion, threatened dangers, etc.
Its secretion makes the individual ready for flight, fright or fight. Hence, medulla is called the
gland of flight, fright and fight.
4. It promotes glycogenolysis resulting in an increase in blood glucose level.
5. It raises O2 consumption.
6. The rate of heart beat and cardiac output increases.
7. It constricts the veins and arteries of the skin.
8. The blood pressure rises sharply.
9. The respiratory rate is increased.
10. It stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH, which stimulates cortex to secrete
glucocorticoids which in turn raise further the level of blood sugar.
11. The urine volume is reduced.
12. The pupil is dilated.
13. Sweating is increased.
14. It produces a sense of restlessness, anxiety and fatigue.

Noradrenaline or Norepinephrine

1. Noradrenaline is secreted by adrenal medulla.

2. Chemically, it is a catecholamine and is closely related to tyrosine and phenylalanine.
3. It is the immediate precursor of adrenaline.
4. Like adrenaline, noradrenaline is also secreted under emergency condition. Hence, it is called
an emergency hormone.
5. Most of its actions are similar to those of adrenaline. Some actions are just the reverse of
adrenaline.
6. It slightly increases the heart beat and the cardiac output is not increased
7. It increases blood pressure.
8. It stimulates the constriction of blood vessels.
9. Respiratory rate is increased.
10. Metabolic rate is increased.
11. Blood sugar level is raised.

Corticosteroid overproduction

Cushing's syndrome

Hypersecretion of cortisol by the adrenal cortex causes a complex of hormonal effects called Cushing's
syndrome. It is characterised by the following features:

1. It is caused by a tumour or hyperplasia of adrenal cortex. It is also caused by the increased

secretion of ACTH by the pituitary.
2. There is increased deposition of fat on the trunk and face. But the limbs are free from fat
deposition.
3. There is a characteristic pad of fat at the back of the neck and it looks like a buffalo hump.
4. Males are characterised by excessive hair growth. Females exhibit masculinization with growth
of beard, moustache, etc.
5. Muscles of the limb are wasted.
6. Wounds poorly heal and minor injuries cause bruises, echinoses, etc.
7. Osteoporosis of bones occur owing to decalcification and loss of protein matrix.
8. The victim exhibits hypertension.
9. In males, testes atrophy. In females, amenorrhoea, sterility, etc. occur.
10. Na is retained, and K is excreted in large amounts.
11. The abundance of cortisol causes increased blood glucose concentration sometimes to values as
high as 200 mg%. If this adrenal diabetes lasts for many months, the insulin - secreting cells of
islets of Langerhans burn out because the high blood glucose greatly over stimulates them to
secrete insulin. The destruction of these cells then causes diabetes mellitus, which is permanent for
the remainder of life.
12. Cushing's syndrome can be treated by the following methods:
a. Removal of adrenal tumour if this is the cause.
b. Decreasing the secretion of ACTH, if this is possible.
c. Partial or total adrenalectomy followed by administration of adrenal steroids to make up the loss

Effect of hypo secretion

Adrenal insufficiency
Addison's disease

The hypofunction of adrenal cortex leads to the failure of the secretion of adrenocorticosteroids. This
deficiency leads to Addison's disease. This disease is named after the discoverer, Thomas Addison. The
hypofunction of adrenal cortex is due to the failure of the secretion of ACTH by the pituitary or
tuberculosis of adrenal Cortex. Addison's disease is characterised by the following symptoms:

1. Addison's disease is characterised by the lack of adrenocorticoids.

2. Lack of mineralocorticoids leads to the failure of reabsorption of Na and H2O from the urine.
Hence sodium ions, chloride ions and H2O are largely lost. The net result is the decrease in
extracellular fluid volume. As the extracellular fluid gets depleted, the plasma volume falls, the
RBC concentration rises markedly, the cardiac output decreases and the patient dies in shock.
3. Another characteristic feature of Addison's disease is melanin pigmentation on the mucous
membranes of lips and on the thin skin of nipples. This is caused by the effects of MSH and ACTH.
4. Muscles become weak and fatigue owing to the loss of NaCl.
5. Vomiting is another symptom.
6. Blood pressure becomes low.
7. BMR and body temperature become low.
8. Absorption and metabolism of glucose are upset.
9. Restlessness, insomnia and lack of mental concentration also occur
10. Urinary losses of sodium.
11. Headache.
12. Diarrhoea.
13. Joint and muscle pains.
14. Cravings for salt and salt food.
15. Sex functions are depressed.
16. Addison's disease can be treated by administering 0.2 mg of fludrocortisone and 30 mgs of
cortisol daily.

Pancreas

The pancreas is an organ of the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is
located in the abdomen behind the stomach and functions as a gland. The pancreas is a mixed
or heterocrine gland, i.e. it has both an endocrine and a digestive exocrine function. 99% of the
Pancreas is exocrine and 1% is endocrine. As an endocrine gland, it functions mostly to regulate blood
Sugar levels, secreting the hormones insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide

ISLETS OF LANGERHANS
Islets of Langerhans are groups of endocrine cells located inside the pancreas. It was discovered by
Langerhans. it is present in groups of cells among the pancreatic gland cells. It consists of 3 types
of cells namely A (𝛼)-cells, B (𝛽)-cells and C-cells. The A-cells secrete glucagon. The B-cells
secrete insulin. The C-cells produce somatostatin.

Insulin

Insulin is secreted by the 𝐵 (𝛽) cells of Islets of Langerhans. Chemically, it is a polypeptide. The
main role of insulin is to lower the blood sugar level. It acts in the following ways to bring down
the blood sugar level:
1. It makes the cells more permeable to glucose.
2. It enhances glucose oxidation in the cells.
3. It increases the rate of conversion of blood glucose into liver glycogen.
4. It promotes the conversion of glucose into fat deposits. Secretion of Insulin is regulated by the
blood sugar level. Its secretion increases when the blood sugar level rises and decreases when
the blood sugar level falls.
Deficiency of insulin causes a disease called diabetes mellitus. This disease has the following
symptoms:
a. Hyperglycaemia: Pronounced increase in blood sugar level.
b. Glycosuria: Appearance of sugar in the urine.
c. Polyuria: Large volumes of urine - about 10 litres per day.
d. Frequent urination.
e. Ketonuria: Increased appearance of ketone bodies in the urine.
f. Ketonemia: Increased appearance of ketone bodies in the blood.
g. Delayed healing of wounds. Diabetes can be cured by the injection of protamine zinc solution

Glucagon

1. It is secreted by the A (𝛼)-cells. It is a polypeptide, blood sugar raising hormone or

hyperglycaemic hormone. It has the opposite effect of insulin. It promotes the process of
glycogenolysis by virtue of which glycogen is broken down to glucose in the liver.
2. It also accelerates the synthesis of glucose or glycogen from non-carbohydrates such as fats and
amino acids (gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis).
3. Glucagon also decreases fatty acid synthesis in adipose tissue and the liver, as well as
promoting lipolysis in these tissues, which causes them to release fatty acids into circulation
where they can be catabolised to generate energy in tissues such as skeletal muscle when
required
A proper balance between insulin and glucagon production is therefore necessary to maintain proper
blood-glucose concentrations.

Ovary

The ovary is an organ in the female reproductive system that produces an ovum. When released, this
travels down the fallopian tube into the uterus, where it may become fertilized by a sperm. There is an
ovary found on each side of the body. The ovaries also secrete hormones that play a role in
the menstrual cycle and fertility. The ovary progresses through many stages beginning in the prenatal
period through menopause. It is also an endocrine gland because of the various hormones that it
secretes. The ovaries are surrounded by a capsule, and have an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The
capsule is of dense connective tissue and is known as the tunica albuginea. Usually, ovulation occurs in
one of the two ovaries releasing an egg each menstrual cycle.The side of the ovary closest to
the fallopian tube is connected to it by infundibulopelvic ligament, and the other side points downwards
attached to the uterus via the ovarian ligament.

Ovarian anatomy

The surface of the ovaries is covered with a membrane consisting of a lining of simple cuboidal-tocolumnar
shaped mesothelium, called the germinal epithelium.

The outer layer is the ovarian cortex, consisting of ovarian follicles and stroma in between them.
Included in the follicles are the cumulus oophorus, membrana granulosa (and the granulosa
cells inside it), corona radiata, zona pellucida, and primary oocyte. Theca of
follicle, antrum and liquor folliculi are also contained in the follicle. Also in the cortex is the corpus
luteum derived from the follicles. The innermost layer is the ovarian medulla.[8] It can be hard to
distinguish between the cortex and medulla, but follicles are usually not found in the medulla.

Follicular cells are flat epithelial cells that originate from surface epithelium covering the ovary. They
are surrounded by granulosa cells that have changed from flat to cuboidal and proliferated to produce
a stratified epithelium.

Function

At puberty, the ovary begins to secrete increasing levels of hormones. Secondary sex characteristics
begin to develop in response to the hormones. The ovary changes structure and function beginning at
puberty. Since the ovaries are able to regulate hormones, they also play an important role in
Pregnancy and fertility. When egg cells (oocytes) are released from the Fallopian tube, a variety of
Feedback mechanisms stimulate the endocrine system which cause hormone levels to change. These
feedback mechanisms are controlled by the hypothalamus and pituitary glands. Messages or signals
from the hypothalamus are sent to the pituitary gland. In turn, the pituitary gland releases hormones to
the ovaries. From this signalling, the ovaries release their own hormones.

Hormone secretion

At maturity, ovaries secrete estrogen, androgen, inhibin, and progestogen. Estrogen is responsible for
the appearance of secondary sex characteristics for females at puberty and for the maturation and
maintenance of the reproductive organs in their mature functional state. Progesterone prepares the
uterus for pregnancy, and the mammary glands for lactation. Progesterone functions with estrogen by
Promoting menstrual cycle changes in the endometrium.

Functions of Estrogen

1. Maturation growth and development of the reproductive organs

2. Stimulation of normal physiological process of the tubular reproductive tract
3. Development of the endometrial lining of the uterus and increase the vascularity of the uterus
4. Dilation of the cervix
5. Liquefaction of mucus plug
6. It aids in sperm transport by increasing the myometrial contraction
7. The estrogens inhibit the secretion of fsh and LH via a negative feedback mechanism
8. The estrogens are involved in the regression of the corpus luteum
9. Estrogen priming promotes the growth of the endometrial glands which is necessary for
maintenance and implantation of zygote.
10. At the time of parturition, it sensitizes the pregnant uterus to oxytocin thus aid in the uterine
contraction along with oxytocin and PGF2a for the expulsion of the fetus.
11. Regulates the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary by its feedback mechanism
12. Helps in development of female secondary sexual characters
13. It causes the growth of the duct system of the mammary gland
14. It stops growth of long bones by initiating the closure of epiphyseal growth plate

Functions of progesterone

1. Progesterone causes growth of the glandular system of the endometrium of uterus and the
secretions from endometrial glands for the nutrition of the ovum and the attachment of the
embryo
2. it plays a role in the maintenance of pregnancy by providing a favorable environment for
survival of the embryo
3. it causes growth of the alveolar system of memory gland
4. progesterone inhibits the smooth as activity of the uterus renders it less sensitive to oxytocin
5. Target tissues are relatively insensitive to progesterone unless primed by estrogen at low levels
progesterone acts with estrogen to stimulate ovulation by promoting LH release
6. At high levels progesterone inhibits the secretion of fsh and LH via a negative feedback anatase
also prevents the evolution of follicles during the luteal phase and during pregnancy
7. progesterone increases efficiency of nutrient utilization

Effect of hyposecretion

Hypogonadism: less than normal secretion by the ovaries can result from poorly formed over his lack
of ovaries or genetically abnormal ovaries that secrete the wrong hormones because of missing enzymes
in the secretary cells. when ovaries are absent from birth or when they become nonfunctional before
puberty female enuchism occurs. In this condition the usual secondary sexual characteristics do not
appear and the sexual organs remain infantile especially characteristic of this condition is prolonged
growth of long bones because of the epiphysis do not unite with the shafts of these bones act as early
and age as in normal adolescent women. when the ovaries of a fully developed woman are removed the
sexual organs regress to some extent so that the uterus becomes almost infantile in size the vagina
becomes smaller and the vagina epithelium becomes thin and easily damaged. the breasts atrophy and
become pendulous and the pubic hair becomes thinner. the same changes occur in women after
menopause.

Irregularity of menses and amenorrhea caused by hypogonadism: as pointed out in the previous
section the quantity of estrogens produced by the ovaries must rise above the critical value if they are
to be able to cause rhythmical sexual cycles. consequently in hypogonadism or when the gonads are
secreting smaller quantities of estrogens as a result of other factors such as hypothyroidism the ovarian
cycle often does not occur normally. in state several months may elapse between menstrual cycles art
menstrual cycles may cease altogether known as amenorrhea. prolonged ovarian cycles are frequently
associated with failure of ovulation presumably because of insufficient secretion of LH at the time of
pre ovulatory surge of LH which is necessary for ovulation.

Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis of bones caused by estrogen deficiency in old age after menopause. Almost no estrogens
are secreted by the ovaries after menopause. This deficiency leads to one diminished osteoblastic
activity in the bones, decreased bone matrix and decreased the position of pool calcium and phosphate.
In some women this effect is extremely severe and the resulting condition is costing process because
this concretely weekend the bones and lead to bone fracture, especially the fracture of the vertebrae. A
large share of post-menopausal women are treated with substitute estrogens to prevent the osteoporotic
effects.

Effect of hyper secretion by ovaries

extreme hyper secretion of ovarian hormones is a real clinical condition because excessive secretion of
estrogen automatically decreases the production of gonadotropin by the pituitary and this in turn limits
the production of ovarian hormones. Consequently hyper secretion of feminising hormones is usually
recognised clinically only when a feminising tumor develops.

Anilos a cell tumour can developed in an ovary occurring more often after menopause than before. these
tumours secret large quantities of estrogen which exert the usual estrogenic effects including
hypertrophy of the uterine endometrium and irregular bleeding from its endometrium in fact bleeding
is often the first and only indication that such a tumor exists.