Experiment- 03

Aim: To study the endocrine system using chart, models/ specimens etc.
Reference: “Principles of Anatomy and Physiology” by “Tortora Grabowski” “Bryan Derrikson” printed
at Shree Maitrey printech Pvt. Ltd., Noida, 15th edition 2017, page no. 544
Requirements: Chart and specimen models for endocrine system.
Theory:
The endocrine system consists of glands that produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
Hormones are chemical messengers that travel throughout the body and help regulate a variety of
physiological processes, such as growth, metabolism, and reproductive functions.
The major endocrine glands and their functions include:
1. Pituitary gland: Located at the base of
the brain, the pituitary gland is often called
the "master gland" because it controls the
activity of many other glands in the body.
 The pituitary gland secretes several
hormones that play important roles in
regulating various physiological processes
in the body. There are two main parts of
the pituitary gland, the anterior pituitary
and the posterior pituitary, each of which
produces different hormones.
The hormones secreted by the anterior
pituitary gland include:
i. Growth hormone (GH): Stimulates
growth and cell reproduction in bones,
muscles, and other organs.
ii. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones,
which regulate metabolism.
iii. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): Stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol, which
helps the body respond to stress.
iv. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): Stimulates the development of ovarian follicles in females
and sperm production in males.
v. Luteinizing hormone (LH): Stimulates ovulation in females and testosterone production in males.
vi. Prolactin: Stimulates milk production in females after childbirth.
The hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary gland include:
i. Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.
ii. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Regulates water balance in the body by reducing urine output.

2. Thyroid gland:
 The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck that produces hormones that regulate
metabolism and other physiological processes in the body. The two main hormones secreted by the thyroid
gland are:

i. Thyroxine (T4): This hormone contains four iodine atoms and is the most abundant thyroid hormone
in the body. It plays an important role in regulating metabolism, body temperature, and energy
production.

ii. Triiodothyronine (T3): This hormone contains

three iodine atoms and is more potent than T4. It is
formed from T4 in the body and plays a key role in
regulating metabolism, growth, and development.

Regulation of secretion:
 The secretion of thyroid hormones is regulated by
a feedback system that involves the hypothalamus
and pituitary gland.
 The hypothalamus produces thyrotropin-releasing
hormone (TRH), which stimulates the pituitary
gland to release thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH).
 TSH, in turn, stimulates the thyroid gland to
produce and release T3 and T4.
 When the levels of T3 and T4 in the blood are high enough, they send a signal to the hypothalamus and
pituitary gland to decrease the production of TRH and TSH, respectively.
 Disruptions in this feedback system can lead to various thyroid disorders, such as hypothyroidism
(underactive thyroid) and hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid).

3. Parathyroid glands:

 The parathyroid glands are four small glands located in the neck, near the thyroid gland. These glands
secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which plays a critical role in regulating calcium and phosphate
levels in the blood.
 The secretion of PTH is regulated by a feedback system that involves the levels of calcium and
phosphate in the blood. When the levels of calcium in the blood are low, the parathyroid glands are
stimulated to release PTH. PTH acts on the bones, kidneys, and intestines to increase the levels of
calcium in the blood.
 Disruptions in the secretion of PTH can lead to various disorders, such as hyperparathyroidism
(overactive parathyroid glands) and hypoparathyroidism (underactive parathyroid glands), which can
cause imbalances in calcium and phosphate levels in the blood and lead to bone and kidney problems.

4. Adrenal glands:

 The adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys and secrete several hormones that play important
roles in regulating various physiological processes in the body.
  There are two main parts of
the adrenal gland, the
adrenal cortex and the
adrenal medulla, each of
which produces different
hormones.

The hormones secreted by the

adrenal cortex include:
i. Cortisol: This hormone is
involved in regulating
metabolism, immune
response, and stress
response.
ii. Aldosterone: This hormone regulates the balance of electrolytes, such as sodium and potassium, in the
body by acting on the kidneys.
iii. Androgens: These are male sex hormones that are also produced in small amounts by the adrenal gland
in both males and females.

The hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla include:

i. Epinephrine (adrenaline): This hormone plays a key role in the "fight or flight" response by increasing
heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels.
ii. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline): This hormone also plays a role in the "fight or flight" response by
increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels.

The secretion of these hormones is regulated by a complex system of feedback loops that involve various
organs and hormones in the body. Any disruption in this system can lead to hormonal imbalances and
various health issues, such as Cushing's syndrome (excess cortisol production) or Addison's disease
(insufficient cortisol and aldosterone production).

5. Pancreas:
 The endocrine pancreas, which is
also known as the islets of
Langerhans, is a small cluster of
cells located in the pancreas that
produce hormones involved in the
regulation of blood sugar levels.
 Disruptions in the secretion of these
hormones can lead to various
metabolic disorders, such as
diabetes mellitus, which is
characterized by high blood sugar
levels due to insufficient insulin
production or insulin resistance.
Figure: The Pancreas
 There are two main types of cells in the endocrine pancreas that secrete hormones: alpha cells and beta
cells.
i. Alpha cells: These cells secrete the hormone glucagon, which plays a key role in increasing blood
sugar levels. When blood sugar levels are low, glucagon is released and stimulates the liver to convert
stored glycogen into glucose, which is released into the bloodstream.

ii. Beta cells: These cells secrete the hormone insulin, which plays a key role in decreasing blood sugar
levels. When blood sugar levels are high, insulin is released and stimulates cells in the liver, muscle,
and fat tissue to take up glucose from the bloodstream and use it for energy or store it for future use.

iii. The endocrine pancreas also secretes other hormones such as somatostatin, which inhibits the secretion
of glucagon and insulin, and pancreatic polypeptide, which may play a role in regulating food intake.

6. Gonads:
The gonads are the primary reproductive organs in males and females, and they secrete hormones that play
important roles in the development and maintenance of secondary sex characteristics, as well as the
regulation of reproductive processes.

Figure: The ovaries Figure: The testes

i. Testes (in males): The testes secrete testosterone, which is the primary male sex hormone. Testosterone
is responsible for the development of male secondary sex characteristics, such as deepening of the
voice, growth of facial and body hair, and increased muscle mass. It also plays a key role in sperm
production.
ii. Ovaries (in females): The ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is responsible for the
development of female secondary sex characteristics, such as breast development and the widening of
the hips. It also plays a key role in the regulation of the menstrual cycle and reproductive processes.
Progesterone is primarily involved in preparing the uterus for pregnancy and maintaining pregnancy.
  In addition to these hormones, the gonads also secrete other hormones such as luteinizing hormone
(LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which are produced by the pituitary gland and regulate
the production of testosterone and estrogen, respectively.
 Disruptions in the secretion of these hormones can lead to various reproductive disorders, such as
infertility, impotence, or menopause.
 Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is often used to treat these disorders by supplementing the body
with the hormones it needs to function properly.

7. Pineal gland:
 The pineal gland is a small gland located in the brain that secretes the hormone melatonin, which is
involved in the regulation of sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythms. Melatonin secretion is
stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light.
 In addition to regulating sleep-wake cycles, melatonin has other important physiological functions,
such as: Regulating seasonal reproductive cycles in animals, Antioxidant activity, Immune modulation
etc.

8. Thymus:
The thymus gland is a small gland located in the
upper chest region, and it plays a critical role in the
development and maturation of the immune system.
The thymus gland secretes several hormones,
including:
i. Thymosin: This hormone plays a key role in the
development and maturation of T-cells, which
are critical for the immune system's ability to
recognize and fight infections and cancers.
ii. Thymopoietin: This hormone also plays a role
in the development and maturation of T-cells.
iii. Thymulin: This hormone is involved in the
regulation of the immune system's response to
infections and cancers.
The thymus gland is most active during childhood and early adolescence, after which it gradually decreases
in size and activity. Thymus gland disorders include thymoma, myasthenia gravis, and DiGeorge syndrome,
among others.
Result: The glands of endocrine system and their functions were studied with the help of charts and model.