Endocrine glands and hormones/Bikash Chhetri

Endocrine glands and hormones

The study of endocrine glands and hormones is called endocrinology.

In multicellular organisms, there are two types of glands.
1. Exocrine glands:- The glands whose secretion are conducted through ducts are called
exocrine glands. These glands produce enzymes.
2. Endocrine glands:- The glands whose secretion are poured directly into the blood
(ductless) are called endocrine glands. These glands produce hormones.
Hormones:- Hormones are the chemical substance that carry message to control the body
function. These are produced by endocrine glands.
Functions of hormones:-
Hormones are regarded as the chemical messenger of the body. They perform the following
functions.
• Hormones control the general metabolism of the body.
• They regulate growth and reproduction of organism.
• They control gametogenesis, development of secondary sexual characters, development
of the embryo in the uterus and child birth.
• Hormones control and regulate the temperature, water and ions balance, blood sugar
level etc.
• Hormones make adaptation to external factors.

Hypothalamus:- Hypothalamus is an area of the brain that links the nervous system and the
endocrine system. It produces the hormone that control body temperature, heart rate, hunger,
thirst, sleep, sex drive etc. It secretes releasing hormone eg: thyroid releasing hormone (TRH),
Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) etc. which control the release of stimulating hormones
from the anterior lobe of pituitary gland e.g. thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH),
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ATCH) etc. The hypothalamus also secretes two hormones,
oxytocin and ADH, which are stored in posterior pituitary and released as per demands of our
body.
Hormones secreted by hypothalamus :
a. Thyroid-releasing Hormone (TRH)
The TRH signals the pituitary gland to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone or TSH.
b. Corticotropin-releasing Hormone (CRH)
The CRH stimulates the pituitary to secrete the adrenocorticotropic hormone or the ACTH. The
ACTH signals the secretion of stress hormone which is known as cortisol.
c. Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone (GnRH)
GnRH causes the pituitary to secrete reproductive hormones like FSH and LH.
d. Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) and Somatostatin: GHRH stimulates anterior
pituitary to release growth hormone and somatostain inhibits anterior pituitary from
releasing growth hormone.
e. Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) and Prolactin inhibiting hormone(PIH): PRH stimulates
release of prolactin from anterior pituitary and causes secretion of milk and PIH inhibits the
 Endocrine glands and hormones/Bikash Chhetri

release of prolactin from anterior pituitary and therefore inhibits milk secretion.
f. Anti- diuretic hormone (ADH): ADH is released from hypothalamic neurons and stored in
posterior pituitary.
g. Oxytocin: Oxytocin is released from hypothalamus and stored in posterior pituitary and is
secreted only at the time of childbirth. It helps in uterine contraction.

Functions of Hypothalamus
• Maintaining sleep cycles
• Maintaining homeostasis
• Connects the nervous and endocrine systems
• Balances body fluids
• Regulates blood pressure and heart rate
Besides these, the hypothalamus secretes hormones that are involved in many other functions
such as appetite and thirst control.
Pituitary gland:- Pituitary gland is also called master gland because some of the hormones
produced from this gland control and regulate other endocrine glands.
It is a small pea sized gland located below the hypothalamus. Hypothalamus sends the
information to the pituitary gland which in turn secretes hormones that directly or indirectly
control the activities of other endocrine glands.
Morphologically, pituitary gland is composed of 3 lobes:-
a. Anterior lobe
b. Intermediate lobe
c. Posterior lobe
The anterior and intermediate lobes of pituitary gland are collectively known as
adenohypohysis while posterior lobe is known as Neurohypophysis.
Hormones of Adenohypophysis:-
1. Follicle stimulating hormones (FSH):-
In female, this hormone stimulate oogenesis i.e stimulate ovary and follicle to form ova.
In males, it stimulate spermatogenesis i.e production of sperm.
2. Luteinizing hormone (LH):- In females, LH stimulates the ovulation and the formation of
the corpus luteum for the secretion of the secondary female hormones called
progesterone and oestrogen.
In males, LH activates the interstitial cells or cells of leydig of the testis to secrete male
hormone testosterone.
3. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH):-
TSH stimulates the growth and functioning of the thyroid gland.
4. Lactogenic hormone:-
This hormone stimulates milk production (lactation) in pregnant female.
5. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH):-
This hormone stimulates adrenal cortex to release its hormone.
6. Growth stimulating hormone (GSH)/ Somatotropin:
This hormone stimulates growth and development of body.
 Endocrine glands and hormones/Bikash Chhetri

Disorders due to growth stimulating hormone (GSH):-

a. Dwarfism:- It is caused due to the hyposecretion of growth hormone in childhood. It is a
condition having a smaller body size due to the low growth and sexual immaturity.
b. Gigantism:- It is caused by the hypersecretion of the growth hormone in the early age. It
is characterized by abnormal growth of the height.
c. Acromegaly:- It is caused by the hypersecretion of the growth hormone. It is
characterized by the abnormal growth of the feet, the hand and the face. The face looks
ugly due to the over growth and thickness of the facial bones.
d. Simmond’s disease:-It is due to hyposecretion of growth hormone in the adult stage. It
is characterized by degeneration of the tissue and the genitals become weak. The
person seems to be old than his actual age.
Hormones of Neurohypophysis:-
1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH):-
ADH helps in osmoregulation of the body by increasing the reabsorption of water in
kidney tubules. The ADH causes the contraction of all the blood vessels and raise the
blood pressure that is why , it is also called vasopressin.
Antidiuresis:- It is the disorder caused due to hypersecretion of ADH. It causes the
excretion of a small volume of water in urine.
2. Oxytocin:-
It promotes the contraction of uterine wall at the time of child birth and stimulates
lactation so that milk secretion increases after delivery.

Thyroid gland:- Thyroid gland is the largest endocrine gland in human body. Its weight is about
20-40 gm. It is bilobed gland and present in the neck. Thyroid gland is larger in females than in
males and may enlarge more during pregnancy. The thyroid gland is stimulated to secrete its
hormones by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) produced from anterior lobe of pituitary gland.
The functional unit of the thyroid gland is a large no. of thyroid follicular cells . Between these
cells, there are other cells called parafollicular cells or C- cells.
Functions of Thyroid gland:-
Thyroid gland produces three types of hormones:-
1. Thyroxine or Tetra-iodothyronine (T4)
2. Tri- iodothyronine (T3)
3. calcitonine
T3 and T4 are secreted by thyroid follicular cells and calcitonine is secreted by C- cells.
Iodine is the major component of T4 and T3 hormones. The thyroid gland is the reservoir of
iodine.
Functions of T3 and T4 hormones:-
1. General metabolism:- T4 and T3 hormones regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates,
proteins and fats.
2. Growth and differentiation:- They promote the growth and development of the body.
3. Metamorphosis:- They are essential for the metamorphosis in the amphibian tadpole.
Disorders of T4 and T3 hormones:-
 Endocrine glands and hormones/Bikash Chhetri

1. Hyposecretion of thyroid gland( Hypothyroidism):- Less thyroid secretion may cause the
following disorders:-
a. Cretinism:- It is a disorder in children. It is characterized by mental and physical
retardation, reduced body growth, BP, heart rate, body temperature remain lower
than the normal.
b. Myxoedema:- It is a disorder in adults. It is characterized by fatty and sluggish
appearance, puffiness in the skin due to the deposition of sub-cutaneous fat and
mucus, dry and pale skin, BP, heart rate, body temperature remain below the normal and
retarted sexual development.
c. Goiter:- Goiter is a disease caused by the deficiency of iodine in food which is
insufficient for the synthesis of thyroxine. It leads to the enlargement of the thyroid
gland resulting in a swelling of the neck.
d. Hashimoto disease:- It is caused due to low thyroid secretion . It is an autoimmune
disease in which the thyroid gland is destroyed by autoimmunity.
2. Hypersecretion of thyroid gland ( hyperthyroidism):- Hyperthyroidism is a condition in
which there is excess secretion of the thyroid hormone. It causes an increased metabolic
rate. It is also called Graves’s disease. It has following symptoms:-
- It causes goiter along with the bulging of eyeball.
- It increases the heart rate, body temperature, sweating, palpitation etc.
- It leads to insomnia, nervousness and mental restless.
- It leads to the loss of body weight due to rapid metabolism.
Functions of calcitonin:- It is secreted when the calcium level is high in the blood. It maintains
the calcium level in the blood. It transfers calcium from the blood to the bones.

Parathyroid glands:-
These are the glands embedded in the dorsal surface of thyroid gland. There are four
parathyroid glands, two glands located in each thyroid lobe.
Functions of parathyroid glands:-
Parathyroid gland secretes a hormone called Parathormone. The main function of
parathormones is to maintain the concentration of calcium and phosphorus ions in the blood.

Hypoparathyroidism:- Hypoparathyroidism causes a disorder called tetany. It is characterised

by spasm of muscles and twitching of the muscles. During this condition, the calcium level in
the blood decreases and the phosphate level in the blood increases.

Hyperparathyroidism:- A condition caused by over secretion of parathromone is called

hyperparathroidism. It causes the bone to become soft and easily bend, thus making the bones
very weak.

Adrenal glands or suprarenal glands:-

Adrenal glands are located on the top of each kidney. The two adrenal glands are small,
flattened cap like structure of yellow colour. These are larger in females than in males.
 Endocrine glands and hormones/Bikash Chhetri

Histologically, adrenal glands are composed of an inner medulla and outer cortex. Each part
secretes its own hormones.
Functions of adrenal glands:- Both the parts of adrenal gland (Cortex and medulla) of adrenal
gland perform functionsseparately.

Hormones of adrenal cortex:-

The hormones secreted by adrenal cortex are categories into 3 groups:-
a. Mineralocorticoides:- Mineralocorticoides consist of aldosterone as the main hormone.
It is associated with the balance of the electrolyte in the body. Its secretion is stimulated
by the sodium level in the blood.
Hyposecretion of mineralocorticoides results in an imbalance of sodium and potassium
ions that leads to nervous disorder, convulsions and ultimately death.
Hypersecretion of these hormones leads to neuromuscular disorder eg:- hypotension.
b. Glucocorticoides:- These are concerned with the carbohydrate, fat and protein
metabolism. It helps in the synthesis of glucose from amino acids and fatty acids
(Gluconeogenesis). Secretion of glucocorticoides is stimulated by ACTH.
c. Sex corticoids or gonadocorticoides:- These are concerned with proper functioning of
sex organs and development of secondary sexual characters in male and female. They
are also called as sex hormones of adrenal.

Disorders of adrenal cortex:-

a. Addison’s disease: It is a disease caused by the deficiencies of mineralocorticoides and
glucocorticodes. It is characterized by dark bronze colour pigmentation of the skin, low
blood pressure and elevated body temperature, weakness, aneamia, vomiting and
diarrhea, low Na+ and high K+ levels in the blood plasma, decreased resistance to
infection etc.
b. Cushing’s disease: It is a disease caused by the hypersection of glucocorticodes. It is
characterized by: Abdominal obesity and the wasting of the muscles in the limbs, high
blood sugar in urine, High Na+ and low K+ concentration in the plasma, deposition of
glycogen in the liver.
c. Aldosteronism:- It is a disease caused by the hypersecretion of aldosterone. It is caused
by high Na+ and low K+ concentration in plasma, nervous disorder, nervous convulsion
and death.
d. Adrenal virilism:- It is an adrenogeniatal syndrome caused caused by the hypersecretion
of sex corticoids in female. It is characterized by male type of external sexual characters
like beards, moustaches and male voice in females, female tends to change into males.
e. Gynaecomastia:- it is a syndrome that take place in male by the over secretion of
female sex hormones called oestrogen. It is characterized by under developed facial
hairs, development of the facial enlarged breasts, low voice like that of females,
decreased testosterone leading to gynaecomastia.
Hormones of Adrenal medulla:-
 Endocrine glands and hormones/Bikash Chhetri

Adrenal medulla secretes two types of hormones:-

1. Adrenaline:- It is also known as emergency hormone of our body. Its secretion is greatly
increase during cold, heat, emotional excitement, anger etc. It perform following
functions:-
• It increases frequency of contraction of heart muscles and therefore given in emergency
situation to stimulate heart.
• It helps in respiration by relaxation of trachea and bronchus. So, it is sometime used in
asthma treatment.
• It increases lipolysis i.e breakdown of fat.
2. Noradrenaline:- Its function is to regulate systolic and diastolic blood pressure.

Pancreas:- Pancreas is the second largest gland located in the curvature of duodenum. It is
also called mixed gland because it contain both exocrine and endocrine gland.
The endocrine portion of pancreas is islets of langerhans. They produce hormones that
enter the blood. Each islets of langerhans consists of 3 types of cells. These cells are Alpha
cells (secrete glucagon), Beta cells( secrete insulin) and delta cells(secrete somatostatins).
The main functions of pancreatic hormones are:-
1. Insulin:- It increases the rate of glucose metabolism.
2. Glucagon:- Glucagon stimulates conversion of glycogen to glucose thus increasing blood
glucose level. Its deficiency causes hypoglycaemia (decreased blood glucose level).
3. Somatostatin:- The main function of somatostatin is to inhibit the secretion of both
insulin and glucagon.

Sex glands:- There are two types of sex glands. These are testis in males and ovaries in
females.
a. Testis:- Testis have specialized cells called interstitial cells, which secretes hormone
testosterone. Testosterone mainly helps in the development of male accessory glands and
controls the development of mustaches, beards, change in voice etc.
b. Ovaries:- Ovaries are the female sex glands. Each ovary has two endocrine parts.
I. Graafian follicles:- It secretes oestrogen which is responsible for initiation and
maintenance of secondary sexual characters.
II. Corpus luteum:- It secretes progesterone which is responsible for promoting
implantation and relaxation of pelvic ligaments towards the end of pregnancy.

Pineal gland: Pineal gland is a small cone shaped gland extending posteriorly from the third
ventricle of the brain. It has got specialized secretory cells called pinealocytes which
synthesize the hormone melatonin. The melatonin is responsible for "circadian rhythm" the
sleep-wake cycle and light-dark cycle.