HYPOTHALAMUS & PITUITARY GLAND

By
Nutan Prakash
Asstt. Professor
Department of Biotechnology
Shree M. & N. Virani Science College
 HUMAN BRAIN

forebrain

Cerebrum(Telencephalon)

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Midbrain
(Mesencephalon)

Corpora quadrigemina

Hindbrain

Cerebellum

Pons

Medulla
 Hypothalamus
 It is considered as supreme commander of
endocrine system.
 The hypothalamus is situated in part of the
forebrain known as the diencephalon,
located between the cerebrum
(telencephalon) and the midbrain
(mesencephalon); and it regulates a wide
spectrum of body functions.
 It contains several groups of Neuro-
secretory cells called nuclei which produce
hormones.
 One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to
link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary
gland.
 These hormones regulate the synthesis and secretion of pituitary
hormones. These hormones are :
 Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
 Adrenocorticotropin releasing hormone (ARH)
 Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GRH)
 Somatotropin releasing hormone or growth hormone
releasing hormone (SRH or GH-RH)
 Somatostatin or growth inhibiting hormone (GIH).
 Prolactin releasing hormone or luteotrophic or lactogenic
hormone releasing hormone (PRH)
 Prolactin inhibiting hormone and
 Melanocyte stimulating hormone and melanocyte-
inhibiting hormone (MSH or MiH).
 These hormones reach the pituitary gland through a portal
circulatory system and regulate the functions of the anterior
pituitary.
 The posterior pituitary is under the direct neural regulation of the
hypothalamus.
Three Methods of Hypothalamic Control over the Endocrine System
Hypothalamus: regulator of the endocrine system

Figure 18.1
 Pituitary and hypothalamus are the link between the
nervous system and the endocrine system.
 Hypothalamus is also major regulator of body
homeostasis
 Homeostatic control includes regulating hunger, thirst, sex
drive, sleep-wake cycles, body temperature, blood glucose.
 Endocrine control via regulating the release of pituitary
hormones.
 Autonomic control via descending pathways to
sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons.
 Limbic function via connections to limbic system
regulating emotional behavior.
Nuclei of the Hypothalamus
Functions of Selected Regions of Hypothalamus

 Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): The tiny region of the brain in the

hypothalamus, situated directly above the optic chiasm. The
biological clock, regulates circadian rhythms.
 Lateral hypothalamus: feeding and arousal (orexinergic cells).
 Ventromedial nucleus: a “satiety center”, inhibits hunger.
 Anterior hypothalamus: contains osmoreceptors, triggers thirst.
Thermoregulation involves several systems including sweat glands,
vasodilation/vasoconstriction, skeletal muscles involved in shivering
and panting, and endocrine systems that control metabolic rate.
 Preoptic area (POA) detects increased body temp
and activates systems that dissipate heat.
 Posterior hypothalamus functions to conserve heat;
 More recent studies suggest hypothalamus functions
in sexual desire/sex preference.
A ‘global’ view of hypothalamic pituitary functions
 Hormone Effect
Corticotropin-releasing Stimulates the pituitary to release
hormone (CRH) adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
Gonadotropin-releasing Stimulates the pituitary to release luteinizing
hormone (GnRH) hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH).
Thyrotropin-releasing Stimulates the pituitary to release thyroid-
hormone (TRH) stimulating hormone (TSH).
Growth hormone- Stimulates the release of growth hormone (GH)
releasing from the pituitary
hormone(GHRH)
Somatostatin Inhibits the release of GH from the pituitary.
Dopamine Inhibits the release of prolactin from the pituitary.
 Pituitary gland
 It is smallest endocrine gland having the weight of about 1-3
gm. Previously it was considered as master gland of the
body.
 The pituitary gland is also called the Hypophysis, is the
smallest endocrine gland.
Origin and location of Pituitary Gland

• Hypophysis (meaning undergrowth) is

so named because of its location below
the brain as undergrowth.
• This is an unpaired small ovoid gland
and is no longer than the end of the little
finger.
• It is located at the base of the brain and
lies below the diencephalon in a
depression of basis phenoid bone of the
skull called Sella Turcica.
 Pituitary has two main lobes:
 Anterior lobe or Adenohypophysis or Pars Distalis
 Posterior lobe or Neurohypophysis or Pars nervosa, and
 an Intermediate lobe or Pars Intermedia at the middle of the two
main lobes
Anterior pituitary (Adenohypophysis)

• The anterior pituitary regulates several physiological processes including stress,

growth, and reproduction. Its regulatory functions are achieved through the

secretion of various peptide hormones that act on target organs including the

adrenal gland, liver, bone, thyroid gland, and gonads.

• The anterior pituitary itself is regulated by the hypothalamus and by negative

feedback from these target organs.

• Disorders of the anterior pituitary are generally classified by the presence of over-

or underproduction of pituitary hormones.

• For ex: A prolactinoma is a pituitary adenoma that overproduces prolactin.

Anatomy of the pituitary gland
Anatomy and Orientation of the Pituitary Gland
 It secretes variety of hormones, which stimulate the other
endocrine glands to secrete their own hormones.
 Pituitary gland functions under the control of Hypothalamus.
 The pituitary gland is functionally linked to the hypothalamus by
the Pituitary Stalk.
 Anterior Pituitary Gland synthesizes and releases following
Gonadotropins
 Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

 Lutenizing Hormone (LH)

 Both of these hormones are released under influence of

Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) from Hypothalamus
 The pars distalis region of pituitary, commonly called anterior
pituitary, produces growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL) thyroid
stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotrophic hormone
(ACTH), luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH).
 Pars intermedia secretes only one hormone called melanocyte
stimulating hormone (MSH). However in humans, the pars
intermedia is almost merged with pars distalis.
 Neurohypophysis (pars nervosa) also known as posterior
pituitary, stores and releases two hormones called oxytocin and
vasopressin, which are actually synthesized by the
hypothalamus.
The functions of different pituitary hormones are described below
HORMONES EFFECTS
GH General body growth
ACTH Stimulate adrenal cortex to release hormone
TSH Controls thyroid gland
LH Stimulates sexual & reproductive function
Anterior
Pituitary FSH Stimulate production of sperm & egg in ovaries
& testis
PRL It stimulates secretion of milk from mammary
gland after parturition (child birth
Pars MSH Related to skin pigmentation
Intermedia
Posterior Oxytocin (OC) Stimulates contraction of uterus & contractile
Pituitary cells of breast
ADH Prevents excess urine production
 LH: In males, LH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of

hormones called androgens from testis. In females, LH

induces ovulation of fully mature follicles (Graafian follicles)

and maintains the corpus luteum, formed from the remnants of

the Graafian follicles after ovulation.

 FSH: FSH stimulates growth and development of the ovarian

follicles in females.
PITUITARY DISORDERS
 Dwarfism: It is generally

due to the deficiency of the

growth hormone secretions
during childhood.
 Gigantism: When large
quantities of growth
hormone is secreted before
adolescence it results in
gigantism.
Acromegaly: high GH secretion
alter adolescence, it causes
acromegaly.
 Bone shape changes
 Cartilaginous areas of skeleton enlarge
 Enlarged lower jaw
 Diabetes insipidus: This condition
is due to the hypo-secretion or
inability to produce antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) from the posterior
pituitary. This condition results in
large volume of dilute urine.
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (also known as TSH or

thyrotropin) is a peptide hormone synthesized and secreted by
thyrotrope cells in the anterior pituitary gland, which regulates
the endocrine function of the thyroid gland.
 Regulation of thyroid hormone levels:
 TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete the hormones thyroxine (T4)

and triiodothyronine (T3).

 TSH production is controlled by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH),

which is manufactured in the hypothalamus and transported to the
anterior pituitary gland, where it increases TSH production and release.

 Somatostatin is also produced by the hypothalamus, and has an opposite

effect on the pituitary production of TSH, decreasing or inhibiting its
release.
 The level of thyroid hormones (T 3

and T4) in the blood has an effect on

the pituitary release of TSH; when
the levels of T3 and T4 are low, the
production of TSH is increased,
and, on the converse, when levels of
T3 and T4 are high, TSH production
is decreased. This effect creates a
regulatory negative feedback loop.
 Growth hormone (GH)

 Growth hormone (GH) is a peptide hormone. It stimulates growth, cell

reproduction and regeneration in humans and other animals. Growth
hormone is a 191-amino acid, single-chain polypeptide that is
synthesized, stored, and secreted by the somatotroph cells within anterior
pituitary.
 Somatotropin refers to the growth hormone produced naturally in
animals, whereas the term somatropin refers to growth hormone
produced by recombinant DNA technology, and is abbreviated “HGH" in
humans.
 Growth hormone is used in medicine to treat children's growth disorders
 In its role as an anabolic agent, HGH has
been used by competitors in sports since
the 1970s, and it has been banned.
 Traditional urine analysis could not
detect doping with HGH, so the ban was
unenforceable until the early 2000s
when blood tests that could distinguish
between natural and artificial HGH were
starting to be developed.
Functions of GH

• Main pathways in endocrine regulation of growth.

• Effects of growth hormone on the tissues of the body can

generally be described as anabolic (building up).

• Increased height during childhood is the most widely known

effect of GH. Height appears to be stimulated by at least two

mechanisms
• Because polypeptide hormones are not fat-soluble, they cannot

penetrate sarcolemma.
• The liver is a major target organ of GH for this

process and is the principal site of IGF-1(insulin-like

growth factors) production. IGF-1 has growth-

stimulating effects on a wide variety of tissues.

• Additional IGF-1 is generated within target tissues,

making it what appears to be both an endocrine and

an autocrine /paracrine hormone.

 IGF-1 also has stimulatory effects on osteoblast and

chondrocyte activity to promote bone growth.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), also known as

'corticotropin', is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced and
secreted by the anterior pituitary gland.
• It is an important component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
axis and is often produced in response to biological stress (along
with corticotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus).
• Its principal effects are increased production and release of
corticosteroids and, as its name suggests, cortisol from the adrenal
cortex.
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

 Luteinizing hormone:
 Luteinizing hormone (LH, also known as lutropin) is a hormone
produced by the anterior pituitary gland.
 In females, an acute rise of LH called the LH surge triggers ovulation
and development of the corpus luteum. Women with a severe LH
deficiency can now be treated with human LH (Luveris) produced by
recombinant DNA technology
 In males, where LH had also been called interstitial cell-stimulating
hormone (ICSH), it stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone.
 LH levels are normally low during childhood and, in women,
high after menopause. As LH is secreted as pulses, it is necessary
to follow its concentration over a sufficient period of time to get
a proper information about its blood level.
 During the reproductive years typical levels are between 1-20
IU/L. Physiologic high LH levels are seen during the LH surge
(v.s.); typically they last 48 hours.
 Follicle-stimulating hormone

• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a hormone found in

humans and other animals.
• It is synthesized and secreted by gonadotrophs of the anterior
pituitary gland.
• FSH regulates the development, growth, pubertal maturation,
and reproductive processes of the body.
• FSH and Luteinizing hormone (LH) act synergistically in
reproduction.
 FSH in females:
 In sexually-mature females, FSH (assisted by LH) acts on the

follicle to stimulate it to release estrogens.

 FSH produced by recombinant DNA technology (Gonal-f) is

available to promote ovulation in women planning to undergo

in vitro fertilization (IVF) and other forms of assisted
reproductive technology.
 FSH in males:
 In sexually-mature males, FSH acts on spermatogonia

stimulating (with the aid of testosterone) the production of

sperm.
Prolactin (PRL)

• Prolactin (PRL) also known as luteotropic hormone (LTH) is

a protein that in humans is encoded by the PRL gene.
• Prolactin is a peptide hormone primarily associated with
lactation.
• In breastfeeding, the act of an infants sucking the nipple
stimulates the production of oxytocin which stimulates the "milk
let-down" reflex, which fills the breast with milk via a process
called lactogenesis, in preparation for the next feed.
• Pituitary prolactin secretion is regulated by neuroendocrine
neurons in the hypothalamus, the most important ones being the
neurosecretory tuberoinfundibulum (TIDA) neurons of the
arcuate nucleus, which secrete dopamine to act on the dopamine-
2 receptors of lactotrophs, causing inhibition of prolactin
secretion.
• Thyrotropin releasing factor
(thyrotropin-releasing
hormone) has a stimulatory
effect on prolactin release.
 A key regulator of prolactin
production is estrogens that
enhance growth of
prolactin-producing cells
and stimulate prolactin
production directly, as well
as suppressing dopamine.
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone:

• The melanocyte-stimulating hormones

(collectively referred to as MSH or intermedins)
are a class of peptide hormones that in nature are
produced by cells in the intermediate lobe of the
pituitary gland.
 Function:
 They stimulate the production and release of
melanin by melanocytes in skin and hair.
Oxytocin:

 Oxytocin is a mammalian hormone that acts

primarily as a neurotransmitter in the brain. Also

known as alpha-hypophamine (α–hypophamine).

 Recent studies have begun to investigate

oxytocin's role in various behaviors,

including orgasm, social recognition, pair

bonding, anxiety, and maternal behaviors.

For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as

the "love hormone."

• It acts on certain smooth muscles:
 stimulating contractions of the uterus at the time of birth;

 stimulating release of milk when the baby begins to suckle.

 Oxytocin is often given to prospective mothers to hasten birth.

Oxytocin also acts on the nucleus accumbens and amygdala in
the brain where it enhances:
 bonding between males and females after they have mated;

 bonding between a mother and her newborn;

 and, in humans, increases the level of one's trust in other

people.
Vasopressin
 Vasopressin is a peptide hormone, It is also known as arginine
vasopressin (AVP) and the antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
 Vasopressin acts on the collecting ducts of the kidney to facilitate
the reabsorption of water into the blood. This it acts to reduce the
volume of urine formed (giving it its name of antidiuretic hormone).
 A deficiency of vasopressin or inheritance of mutant genes for its
receptor (called V2) leads to excessive loss of urine, a condition
known as diabetes insipidus.
 The most severely-affected
patients may urinate as much as
30 liters (almost 8 gallons!) of
urine each day. The disease is
accompanied by terrible thirst,
and patients must continually
drink water to avoid dangerous
dehydration.
 Control:
• Vasopressin is secreted from the posterior pituitary gland in
response to reductions in plasma volume, in response to
increases in the plasma osmolality, and in response to
cholecystokinin by the small intestine.
• Secretion in response to reduced plasma volume is activated by
pressure receptors in the veins. atria, and carotids.
• Secretion in response to increases in plasma osmotic pressure is
mediated by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.
• Secretion in response to increases in plasma cholecystokinin is
mediated by an unknown pathway.
• The neurons that make AVP, in the hypothalamic supraoptic
nuclei (SON) and paraventricular nuclei (PVN), are themselves
osmoreceptors, but they also receive synaptic input from other
osmoreceptors located in regions adjacent to the anterior wall of
the third ventricle. These regions include the organum
vasculosum of the lamina terminalis and the subfornical organ.
• Many factors influence the secretion of vasopressin:
• Ethanol(alcohol) acts as an antagonist for AVP in the collecting ducts of
the kidneys, which prevents aquaporins from binding to the collecting
ducts, and prevents water reabsorption.
• Angiotensin II may stimulate the secretion of AVP.
 Secretion:
• The main stimulus for secretion of vasopressin is increased
osmolality of plasma. Reduced volume of extracellular fluid also
has this effect, but is a less sensitive mechanism.
• The AVP that is measured in peripheral blood is almost all derived
from secretion from the posterior pituitary gland (except in cases of
AVP-secreting tumours). However there are two other sources of
AVP with important local effects:
• Vasopressin is also released into the brain by several different
populations of smaller neurons
Diseases found in Pituitary Gland

• The most common problem with the pituitary is the development

of a tumor.
• While most are benign, they can produce excessive amounts of a
specific pituitary hormone, crowd out the production of other
hormones, and compress surrounding tissues.
• Blood vessels and the optic nerves are in close proximity to the
pituitary gland. Pressure from a tumor can cause headaches,
visual disturbances, loss of vision, fatigue, weakness, and
seizures, as well as a host of signs and symptoms related to
diminished hormone production.
• Other pituitary disorders can arise from inherited genetic
mutations, be congenital, be due to trauma or an impaired blood
supply, due to surgical or radiation treatment of a previous
pituitary disorder, due to a malignant tumor (rare), or be due to
causes that are not yet well understood.
• The hormone deficiencies and excesses from these disorders can
produce a variety of symptoms depending on which hormones
and target tissues are affected.
• When the hypothalamus is dysfunctional, pituitary hormone
production is often affected.
• TSH in turn stimulates thyroid hormone production by the
thyroid gland.
• Excess or deficient hormone production by the pituitary
may also occur if the glands “downstream” from it are
dysfunctional.
• For example, normally the hypothalamus detects thyroid
hormone deficiency in the blood and stimulates the pituitary
to produce TSH.
• If the thyroid gland is dysfunctional and cannot produce
adequate amounts, then blood thyroid hormone levels will
remain below normal even though the hypothalamus and
pituitary are promoting production..
 Common Pituitary Disorders:
 Pituitary Tumors

 Growth Hormone Deficiency

 Hypopituitarism

 Empty Sella Syndrome

 Rare Pituitary Disorders:

 Acromegaly and Gigantism

 Cushing’s Disease

 Diabetes Insipidus

 Nelson’s Syndrome

 Kallman’s Syndrome
Examples of Rare Pituitary Disorders:

 Acromegaly and Gigantism: excess growth

hormone production, usually due to a tumor; when
it occurs in childhood, it causes gigantism
associated with excessive bone growth and
abnormally tall stature; in adults, it causes
acromegaly, with increases in bone thickness,
coarsened facial features, enlarged hands and feet,
headaches, sweating, sleep apnea, fatigue, and
hypertension.
 Treatment:
 Stopping or reducing the overproduction of growth hormone is not
easy; thus, doctors may need to use a combination of surgery,
radiation therapy, and drug therapy.
 Ex: Vikas Kumar "Vicky" Uppal (1986 – June 30, 2007) was a
native and resident of India, said to be his country's tallest man
until his death.
 On 12 January 2004, The Tribune reported him to be 8 ft 3 in (2.51
m) tall and still growing, being in his late teens. On 10 June 2005,
rediff.com reported him to be 8 ft 10 in (2.69 m) tall.
Cushing’s Disease:
• Cushing’s syndrome symptoms caused by a
pituitary tumor that produces excess ACTH
and leads to excess exposure to the adrenal
gland hormone cortisol;
 symptoms vary but include: upper body
obesity, a rounded face, thin skin, pink streaks
on the abdomen, muscular weakness,
osteoporosis, high blood sugar, and high blood
pressure
 Treatment: depends on whether the problem is in the
adrenal glands, the pituitary gland, or elsewhere. Surgery
or radiation therapy may be needed to remove or destroy
a pituitary tumor. Tumors of the adrenal gland (usually
adenomas) can often be removed surgically. Both adrenal
glands may have to be removed if these treatments are
not effective or if no tumor is present.
Diabetes Incipidus
 Central diabetes insipidus is a lack of antidiuretic hormone that
causes excessive production of very dilute urine (polyuria).
 Central diabetes insipidus has several causes, including a brain
tumor, tuberculosis, a brain injury or surgery, and some forms of
other diseases.
 The main symptoms are excessive thirst and excessive urine
production.
 The diagnosis is based on urine tests, blood tests, and a water
deprivation test.
 People with central diabetes insipidus usually are given the drugs
vasopressin or desmopressin as a nasal spray.
 Treatment: Vasopressin or desmopressin (a modified
form of vasopressin) may be taken as a nasal spray
several times a day. The dose is adjusted to maintain the
body's water balance and a normal urine output. Taking
too much of these drugs can lead to fluid retention,
swelling, and other problems
Nelson’s Syndrome:
 may result when both adrenal glands are removed as
part of the treatment for Cushing’s Disease; a
pituitary tumor develops that produces ACTH .
 Symptoms: cause darkening of the skin due to
increased production of melanocyte stimulating
hormone (MSH) disturbances, and delayed
growth.
 Treatment: Pituitary surgery is performed in
some cases. The risk can also be minimized by
pituitary irradiation.
 Kallman’s Syndrome: deficient release of GnRH
(gonadotropin-releasing hormone) leads to lack of FSH and LH
production; causes delayed or absent puberty; associated with no
sense of smell; occurs only in males.
Pineal Gland

By
Nutan Prakash
Asstt. Professor
Department of Biotechnology
Shree M. & N. Virani Science College
• Small, pine-cone-shaped gland (hence its name)
• Reddish-gray in color
• It is larger in children, but shrinks with the onset of
puberty
• In adults, it weighs a bit more than 0.1 grams and is
about 0.8 cm long
• Situated between 2 cerebral hemispheres ; Attached
to the posterior wall of the 3rd cerebral ventricle
• Suspended in a cavity of cerebrospinal fluid
• Lacks a blood-brain barrier, therefore, receives blood, oxygen, &
nutrients through a rich vascular network.
• Contains a large supply of adrenergic nerve fibers
• Composed of pinealocytes (endocrine cells with extensions that
interact with the extensions of nearby cells) and supporting cells
that resemble astrocytes.
 Produces melatonin (synthesized from serotonin, a derivative
of tryptophan)
Functions of the Pineal Gland

 The major function of the pineal gland is producing melatonin, a

hormone that has several important effects on the body.
 Melatonin regulates daily body rhythms, most importantly
circadian rhythm, the wake/sleep cycle. We feel sleepy at night
because darkness stimulates the pineal gland to produce
melatonin and we feel alert during the day because light inhibits
the pineal gland from producing melatonin. Since the activity of
the pineal gland depends on the amount of available energy, it is
a photosensitive organ.
 The abundant levels of melatonin in children inhibit the secretion
of gonadotropins, hormones that regulate normal growth, sexual
development, and reproductive functions, before puberty.
Therefore, they prevent the onset of puberty before the
appropriate age.
 Melatonin levels are low in children with autism, and as a result,
about 70% of them suffer from sleeping problems.
 Studies show that low doses of melatonin can help children with
autism sleep better without giving them any noticeable side
effects.
 Studies show that melatonin levels may be related to the risk of
certain types of cancer.
 Melatonin levels tend to be lower in women with breast cancer
than in those without the disease.
 Laboratory experiments show that low levels of melatonin
stimulate the growth of certain types of breast cancer cells.
However, adding melatonin to these cells slows their growth.
 New research also suggests that melatonin may strengthen the
effects of some chemotherapy drugs used to treat breast cancer.
 In one study, several women with breast cancer were given
melatonin 7 days before beginning chemotherapy. The
melatonin prevented the lowering of platelets in the blood, a
common complication that can cause bleeding.
Functions of the Pineal Gland cont’d

 In another study, several women with breast cancer were taking

tamoxifen, but were not improving. However, once melatonin
was added, the tumors in over 28% of the women modestly
shrank.
 Studies also show that melatonin levels are lower in men with
prostate cancer than in those without the disease.
 In test tube studies, melatonin blocks the growth of prostate
cancer cells.
 In one small-scale study, melatonin, along with improved
regular medical treatment, improved survival rates in 9 out of
14 men with metastatic prostate cancer.
 Melatonin has been found to be able to slow the aging process.
 It is a powerful antioxidant that can easily pass through cell
membranes and the blood-brain barrier.
 It is a highly effective and direct scavenger of the very reactive
and toxic free radicals.
 Unlike other antioxidants, melatonin does not undergo redox
cycling. Once it is oxidized it can never be reduced to its
former state. Therefore, it never promotes free radical
formation.
 By terminally disarming the free radicals, melatonin protects
the cells’ DNA from oxidation damage.
Pineal Gland: Interactions with Other Organs

Secretion of melatonin by the pineal gland inhibits the secretion of



the Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) by the hypothalamus.

Secretion of melatonin also indirectly inhibits the pituitary from


secreting gonadotropins, Leutenizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle

Stimulating Hormone (FSH), because the secretion of GnRH is
necessary for this to occur.
Because its secretion reduces the levels of LH in the blood,


melatonin may inhibit ovulation in women and can decrease sperm

mobility and sex drive in men.
The pineal gland also interacts with the hypothalamus in regulating


the circadian rhythm.

Diseases & Disorders

Delayed Circadian Rhythm Disorder. DCR constitutes a mismatch



between you external and internal clocks. Your internal clock runs
slower than a normal circadian rhythm which is a 24-hour period so
your body doesn't 'wake up' until later in the morning or day.

When this occurs in the body, the pineal gland releases the


nighttime hormone, melatonin, too late, often causing you to fall

asleep later. When its time to wake up, your body clock believes it’s
only midnight and is still producing the nighttime hormones.
 As a result of this disorder a person may experience the following


symptoms:
Difficulty falling and staying asleep, and or late night insomnia.


A general lack of energy in the morning.



An increase of energy/mood in the evening or late at night.



Difficulty concentrating, being alert, or accomplishing tasks



Some DCR sufferers oversleep and have trouble getting up



Treatment:


Dawn Simulation helps people maintain a steady circadian rhythm by



exposing their internal body clocks to a properly timed signal of

light through their retina. The light gradually becomes brighter,
simulating a sunrise, to reset the body clock while not to bright to
cause premature awakening.
 Advanced Circadian Rhythm Disorder (ACR) is the opposite of DCR.


With ACR, your internal body clock is running faster than a normal
circadian rhythm. You tend to run out of energy before their day is up.
ACR compresses the sleep portion of your daily cycle, causing you to
lose valuable sleep. ACR sufferers often sleep less than 8 hours per night,
and awaken early.

Because your circadian rhythm is running fast, your pineal gland



releases melatonin too soon, causing lethargy earlier in the day. Then,
because melatonin is released prematurely, you are unable to maintain a
complete sleep cycle, and you wake up too early.
 As a result of this disorder a person may experience the following


symptoms:


Early morning awakening and/or early morning Insomnia



Inconsistent sleep with one or more awake periods during the night


Lack of energy during the day, feeling tired in the early afternoon


and/or evening

Alertness and ability to function may also be diminished



Some ACR sufferers may not notice a sleep problem but lose energy


and feel tired or down in the afternoon or evening time.

 Treatment:


Specialized bright light is the only effective treatment for



ACR. Bright light will inhibit the release of melatonin for

about 3 hours. Use bright light in the late afternoon and
evening and avoid bright morning light before 9:00 am.
Where sunglasses if you need to be exposed to bright light
early in the morning and make your night time as dark as
possible.
 Precocious Puberty: An unusually early onset of puberty beginning before age 8 for


girls and before age 9 for boys.

If left untreated, children will become able to reproduce and will stop growing too soon.


One of the causes for precocious puberty is having lower than normal levels of


melatonin. This is a problem because melatonin is responsible for inhibiting the actions
of the gonadotropins.

Symptoms for girls are breast growth and a first menstruation



Symptoms for boys enlarged testicles and penis, facial hair, and a deepening of the


voice
 Symptoms for boys AND girls are pubic or underarm hair, rapid growth,


acne, and adult body odor

If the children’s precocious puberty is caused by abnormally low



melatonin levels, melatonin supplements can be a very successful form of

treatment.

Treatment is very important because precocious puberty will prevent



children from reaching their full height because they stop growing too
early.

Going through puberty before anyone their age can also have negative


psychological effects on children, including low self-esteem and