PHYSIOLOGY OF

SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX
Dr Oyeniran Ayodeji Oaolu
 SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX
• The part of the brain essential for receiving sensory information from
the body( skin, muscles, tendons and joints) i.e touch, pain, and
vibration from the entire body and processing it to initiate important
movements that are required to deal with a particular situation.
There are specific receptors which respond to a particular type of
stimulus. Somantic sensation are classified into three types
• (a) Epicretic sensations-mild or light sensation(fine touch or tactile
sensation, tactile localisation, tactile discrimination and temparature
sensation with finer range between 25 and 40degrees
• (b) Protopathic sensations-crude sensation which are primitive .They
are pressure sensation, pain sensation, temparature sensation with a
wide range above 40 and below 25 degrees.
• (c) Deep sensations-arising from deeper structure beneath the
skin( sensation of vibration (pallesthesia), sensation of awareness of
position and movement of different part of body(Kinestheia) and
visceral organs
 Somatosensory cortex
• Somatosensory cortex is divided into two functional parts;
•Primary somatosensory area or cortex (S1)
•Secondary somatosensory area or cortex (S2)
•The somatosensory cortex is a part of the forebrain. It is present in the
parietal lobe. The primary somatosensory area (S1) occupies the postcentral
gyrus on the lateral surface and the posterior part of the paracentral gyrus on
the medial surface of the cerebral hemisphere.
•The secondary somatosensory area (S2) is present in the superior limb of the
posterior part of the lateral fissure (a fissure in the cerebral hemispheres that
separates the frontal and parietal lobes from the temporal lobe).
•Primary Somatosensory Cortex (S1)
•The primary somatosensory area receives projection fibers from the ventral
posterior lateral and ventral posterior medial nuclei of thalamus. These
nuclei receive fibers from the contralateral half of the body in the form of
medial, trigeminal and spinal lemnisci.
•The efferent fibers from the primary somatosensory cortex terminate at the
somesthetic association area.
SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX
• Secondary Somatosensory Cortex (S2)
• The secondary somatosensory area receives bilateral fibers from
the entire body. However, the neuronal connections of this part
are not well understood. It is believed that most of the fibers in
the secondary area come from the primary somatosensory area.
• Representation of Body 
• In the primary somatosensory cortex, the contralateral half of the
body is represented as an inverted homunculus. The pharyngeal
region, tongue, and lips are represented in the most inferior part;
followed by face, fingers, hands, arms, trunk, and thigh.The leg
and foot areas are represented in the posterior part of
paracentral lobule, present on the medial surface of cerebral
hemisphere. The anal and genital regions are present here.The
proportion of the cortex representation for a particular part of
the body depends on its functional importance rather than its
size. In fact, the area occupied by a particular body part is
proportional to the number of sensory receptors present in it.
 Representation
•  Representation in secondary area (S2)
• The secondary cortex is much smaller and less
important than the primary somatosensory cortex.
Here, the body is bilaterally represented with the
contralateral side dominant. The leg area is present
most posterior, and the face area lies most anterior.
• The reason for this division is that a distinct and
separate spatial orientation of different parts of the
body is found in the two areas
Somatosensory
 FUNCTIONS
• (I)Localization of Sensations=. It is probably the most important
function and responsible for the discrete localization of different
sensations that arise in different parts of the body. Pinpoint the
location of pain, tingling, touch, temperature, and other sensations is
the function of somatosensory cortex, specifically area S1. 
• (II)Pressure Perception -It is also responsible for the perception of
different degrees of pressure against the body. 
• (III)Weight Perception- It allows a person to approximately judge the
weights of objects.
• (IV) Perception of Shape= It allows a person to judge the shape of an
object by mere holding it in hand without looking at it or even when
the eyes are closed. This is called stereognosis.The somatosensory
area, along with other areas of brain plays an important role in
stereognosis.
• (V) Feeling the Texture-The somatosensory area (S1) also helps you
judge the texture of the materials and  this depends on the critical
 Clinical Significance
• The sensory information is relayed from the lower centers of
the brain, principally the thalamus to the somatosensory
cortex for analysis.It is necessary for appreciation of spatial
recognition of intensity and recognition of similarities and
differences. Any lesion of somatosensory cortex can produce
decline in the above-mentioned symptoms.The lesion can be
unilateral or bilateral . Unilateral lesion causes disturbance in
the contralateral side of the body and loss of muscle tone may
also be a symptom of lesions of somatosensory
cortex.Widespread bilateral lesion causes following clinically
important signs and symptoms:
 Clinical Significance
• Defective Localization-Inability to discretely localize different
sensations arising in different parts of the body but can localize
sensations crudely. such as to a particular foot, to a major level
of chest or to one of the arms. This crude localization is possible
because other parts of the brain such as the brain stem,
thalamus, or other parts of cerebral cortex can do localization
to some extent.
• Defective Pressure Judgement-Inability to judge the critical
degree and severity of the pressure applied against the body
but aware that pressure is applied.
• Defective Weight Judgement-Inability to judge the weights of
different objects after carrying them in hand.
• Astereognosis-Inability to judge the shape or forms of different
objects, a phenomenon called astereognosis.
PHYSIOLOGY OF RETICULAR FORMATION

• Dr Oyeniran Ayodeji Olaolu

 RETICULAR FORMATION
• The reticular formation is found in the center area of the
brainstem known as the tegmentum. The tegmentum is a
heterogeneous section of neural tissue that extends vertically
through the brainstem, making up the portion of the brainstem
that sits between the ventricles and surface structures like the
basal pons and the pyramids of the medulla. As the reticular
formation is found at the core of the tegmentum, it too runs
along the length of the brainstem and extends downwards into
spinal cord and upward to thalamus and subthalamus.
• The reticular formation resembles a net made up of nerve
fibers and nerve cells. It is a deeply placed diffuse network of
fibers and nuclei and very diverse structure that contains
various nuclei along with numerous ascending and descending
tracts.
 NUCLEI AND CONNECTION OF RETICULAR
FORMATION
• NUCLEI
• It composed of various nuclei arranged in three groups-
(1) Nuclei of medullary reticular formation.
(2) ) Nuclei of pontine reticular formation.
(3) ) Nuclei of midbrain reticular formation.
• CONNECTIONS
• Different pathways from the entire central nervous system project
onto the reticular formation. It receives collateral from almost all
the ascending sensory pathways and also receives firers from
different parts of the brain (afferents connections) and it sends
fibers to different areas of the CNS ( efferent .connections).
 Reticular formation
• The reticular formation contains several groups of cells that produce
neurotransmitters; these neuronal populations have extensive
connections throughout the central nervous system and are involved in
the regulation of activity throughout the brain. Ventral tegmental – One
of the largest brain dopamine-producing area in the brain. Locus
ceruleus, which is the largest collection of noradrenergic neurons in the
brain. The raphe nuclei the primary sites of serotonin release in the brain,
are found near the midline of the brainstem in the reticular formation.
And, some of the largest sites of acetylcholine production in the brain, the
pedunculopontine nucleus and laterodorsal tegmental nucleus, are found
in the midbrain reticular formation. Neurotransmitters are produced in all
of these areas and sent throughout the central nervous system to
modulate sensory perception, motor activity, and behavioral responses.
 AFFERENTS CONNECTIONS
• AFFERENTS
• Three tracts from the spinal cord project onto the
reticular formation. These include: -Spinothalamic tract,
Spinoreticular tract and Medial lemniscus
•  Also fibers from cranial nerves and other brain parts like
-Optic, Olfactory Auditory and Taste pathways
-Cerebral cotex
-Cerebellum
-Corpus striatum
-Thalamic nuclei.
-Subthalamus
-Hypothalamus
-Limbic system
-Somatosensory cortex
 EFFERENT CONNECTIONS
• Reticulobulbar tract continue in the brainstem and reach the motor
nuclei of the cranial nerves.
• Reticulospinal tract, for the motor nuclei present in the anterior horn
of the spinal cord.
• Other efferent fibers extend to the sympathetic and the
parasympathetic outflow.
• They also reach the nuclei of
- corpus striatum
-cerebellum
- red nuclei
- thalamus,
-substantia nigra and tectum of midbrain.
The reticular formation and its connections is divided into two system
based on functions- The ascending reticular activating system and
the descending reticular system.
 ASCENDING RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM
• It begins in the lower part of brainstem, extends upward
through the pons, midbrain, thalamus and finally projects
into the cerebral cortex through the subthalamus and
thalamus .It also receives fibers from the sensory pathways
via long ascending spinal tracts. The nuclei of the
numerous cell groups and tracts found throughout the
reticular formation or connected to its neurons. some
worth noting are neurotransmitter production nuclei
associated with the cranial nerves, descending tracts
involved in modulating sensory and motor functions, and
ascending tracts integral to arousal and consciousness.
• It also causes emotional reactions and play an important
role in regulating learning processes and development of
conditioned reflexes.
 DESCENDING RETICULAR SYSTEM
• The descending reticular system includes reticular formation in
brainstem ,reticulospinal tracts and reticular formation in spinal
cord.It modified the activities of spinal motor neurons and
functionally divided into descending inhibitory reticular system and
descending facilitatory reticular system.
Functions of descending inhibitory reticular system includes ;
(1)Somatomotor control
(a)Responsible for the smoothness and accuracy of voluntary
movement
(b)Regulation of reflex movements
(c) regulation of muscle tone and thereby play important role in
maintaining posture and mainly inhibit extensor muscles.
(2) Vegetative function s control- the center for inhibition of various
autonomic functions like cardiac function, blood pressure, respiratory
,gastrointestinal function and body temperature
 DESCENDING SYSTEM
Functions of descending inhibitory reticular system includes
(A)Somatomotor control
(1)Responsible for the smoothness and accuracy of voluntary
movement
(2)Regulation of reflex movements
(3) regulation of muscle tone and thereby play important role in
maintaining posture .
(4) Control muscular activities by inhibiting the motor neurons of
spinal cord . It mainly inhibit extensor muscle
(B) Vegetative functions control-
(5) the center for inhibition of various autonomic functions like
cardiac function, blood pressure, respiratory ,gastrointestinal
function and body temperature
 DESCENDING SYSTEM
• Function of descending facilitatory reticular system
includes
(1) Facilitate movement of body and maintain muscle tone
(2) Activate extensor muscle by inhibiting flexor muscle
(3) Control of Respiratory Muscles
(4) Muscles of Facial Expression
(5) Facilitate Somatic and Visceral Sensation
(6) Facilitate all Autonomic Nervous System
(7) Facilitate the Endocrine Nervous System
(8) Influence on the Biologic Clocks
(9) Play an important role in activating ARAS
PHYSIOLOGY OF THALAMUS

Dr Oyeniran Ayodeji Olaolu

 Thalamus 
• Thalamus is a large egg-shaped mass of grey matter bilaterally
present in diencephalon, a part of the forebrain. Both thalami
formed 80% of diencephalon. Thalamus is involved in sensory
as well as motor functions of the brain.
• It is the part of the brain where the sensory information from
all over the body converge and are then sent to various areas
of the cortex. It also helps the motor cortex for coordinated
voluntary movements of the part. Thus, it has an important
role in motor cognition.
 Thalamic nucleus
• The Thalamus on each side is divided into five main nuclear groups by
means of internal medullary srptum..
- Midline nuclei –situated on the medial surface near the midline of
thalamus.
- Intralaminar nuclei- small group present in the medullary septum of
thalamus
-Medial mass of nuclei- medial to the septum and consist of anterior
nucleus and dorsomedial nucleus
-Lateral mass of nuclei-situated lateral to the septum and divided into
two subgroups –Dorsal group(( dorsolateral nucleaus and
posterolateral nucleus) and Ventral group(Anterior ventral
nucleus,lateral ventral nucleus and posterior ventral nucleus)
-Posterior group of nuclei- Continuation of lateral mass of nuclei with
two subgroups-Pulvinar and metathalamus(medial and lateral
geniculate body)
 Thalamic connection
• Afferents from
-occipital and parietal lobe
-precuneus cortex
-Hypothalamus
-Globus pallidus
-Midbrain nuclei
-Red nucleus
Dentate nucleus
-Reticular formation
-Trigeminal lemniscus
-Lateral Lemniscus
- Medial Lemniscus
- Spinal Lemniscus
-Optic and Auditory tract
 Thalamic connection
Efferents to
-Prefrontal cortex
-Parietal lobe
-Occipital lobe
-Auditory cortex
-Visual cortex
-Limbic cortex
-Hypothalamus
-Putamen
-Caudate Nucleus
 Thalamic radiations
• This is collection of nerve fibers connecting thalamus to the cerebral cortex. It
contains both thalamocortical and corticothalamic fibers and all pass through
the internal capsule.
• Thalamic radiations are divided into four groups which are called thalamic
peduncles or thalamic stalks.
(i) Anterior(frontal) Peduncle or radiation contains mostly motor nerves
fibers .it connects frontal lobe of cortex with thalamic medial and lateral
nuclei
(ii) Superior(centroparietal) peduncle or radiation contains mainly sensory
fibers .it connects parietial lobe post-central gyrus and adjacent area in
frontal cortex with thalamic nuclei lateral mass.
(iii) Posterior(occipital ) peduncle or radiation contains nerve fibers connected
with vision. It connects occipital lobe of cerebral cortex with Pulvinar and
lateral geniculate body.
(iv) Inferior(temporal) peduncle or radiation contains the nerve fibers
concerned with hearing. It connects temporal lobe and insula with pulvinar
and medial geniculate body.
 FUNCTIONS
• Thalamus occupies the central position between the cortex and
spinal cord as well as other areas of the lower brain. Thus, it acts
as an important relay center for the signals passing from the
lower centers to the higher centers of the brain. Almost all
sensory information pass through the thalamus before going to
the higher centers of the brain.
• Integration of Sensory Information -Thalamus not only acts as a
relay or passage to thesensory information, but it also integrates
the sensory information. This integrated sensory information is
then sent to other areas of cortex. It in this way the sensations of
smell and taste are integrated resulting in the salivatory response.
• Emotional Control Being a part of the mammillothalamic tract,
thalamus plays an important role in controlling the emotional
tone of a person.
 FUNCTIONS
• Integration of Sensations with Emotions-The dorsomedial nucleus of
thalamus integrates the somatic, visceral and olfactory sensations of
a person. This integrated information is fed to the mammillothalamic
tract resulting in the emotional response to the sensation.
• Hearing and Visual Pathway-The medial and lateral geniculate bodies
are part o fauditory and visual pathways, respectively. Thus, it is
essential for normal hearing and visual process of a person. Its
disease will affect hearing as wellas vision.
• Consciousness-The level of consciousness is controlled by the
interlaminar nuclei of thalamus. It receives information from the
reticular formation and control the activity of other thalamic nuclei.
Thus, these nuclei control the overall activity of cortex, influencing
the level of consciousness and alertness..
• Motor control -The ventral anterior and the ventral lateral nuclei of
the thalamus are a part of the basal nuclei circuit of voluntary
movement control.
 Clinical significance
• As thalamus is an important relay and integrative area, the disease of
this region of CNS will have profound effects on the body. The
thalamus may be damaged by neoplasia, disease in arterial supply or
due to hemorrhage.
• Following are some important clinical significances of thalamus.
• Sensory Loss
• Lesions of thalamus resulting from hemorrhage or thrombosis of
arteries can damage ventral posteromedial and ventral posterolateral
nuclei of thalamus. This can, in turn, lead to the complete sensory
loss.
• The sensory loss is complete including light touch, tactile, pain,
discrimination, and joint and muscle sensations from the opposite
side of the body.
• Abnormal Involuntary MovementsThe vascular lesions of the
thalamus may also lead to choreoathetosis and ataxia. The ataxia
may be a result of loss of appreciation of muscle and joint
 Clinical significance
• Thalamic Hand
• The patients with thalamic lesions have a particular abnormal
posture of the contralateral hand. In thalamic hand, the wrist of
the person is pronated and flexed, the metacarpophalangeal
joints are flexed, and there is an extension at the interphalangeal
joints. The movements of the fingers are also slow.
• Thalamic Pain
• When a patient is recovering from thalamic infarct, he
may experience spontaneous pain. The pain is often excessive
and occurs on the
contralateral side of the body.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LIMBIC
SYSTEM

Dr Oyeniran Ayodeji Olaolu

 The limbic system
• The limbic system consists of the phylogenetically old
limbic lobe and other subcortical structures and their
connections. All these structures form a limbus or ring
around the hilus of cerebral hemisphere .It was eralier
called rhinencephalon.The Limbic sysytem is primarily
related to emotional part of life and is extensively
concerned with formation of memory. There is no
universal agreement on the total list of structures, which
comprise the limbic system but composed of
The cortical and subcortical structure of Limbic system
are classified into three groups.
(i) Paleocortical structure (phylogenetically the oldest
structure which includes the Hippocampus, pyriform
 LIMBIC SYSTEM
(ii)Juxtallocortical structure-situated between paleocortex
and neocortex they inludes Cingulate gyrusor limbic
cortex and orbitoinulotemporal cortex
(iii) subcortical structure – these are six structure which
are part of limbic system below the cortex they inludes:
(a) Amygdaloid complex.
(b)Septai nuclei
© Thalamic nuclei
(d) Hypothalamic nuclei
(e) Caudate nucleus
(f) Reticular formation of midbrain.
 OTHER CONNECTIONS
• Limbic system connection are complex and these can be afferent
or efferent. The major connection are:
(i) Fornix- it includes fibers connecting
(a) Hippocampus and septai nuclei with the mamillary body
(b) Hippocampus with hypothalamic nuclei
(ii) Lateral hypothalamus receives fibers from :
(a) ) Hippocampus and septai nuclei
(b) Olfactory tubercle
© Head of caudate nucleus
(d) Pyriform area
(e) Periamygdaloid area.
(iii) Caudate nucleus receives fibers from:
(a) Cingulate gyrus
(b) (b) Intralaminar nuclei of thalamus
 OTHER CONNECTIONS
((iv) Brainstem reticular formation receives
fibers from:
(a ) ) Hippocampus
(b) Cingulate gyrus
(v) Papez circuit-A complex closed Circuit form
by interconnections of various structure of
limbic system and play a role in memory
encoding.
 FUNCTIONS
• 1 Olfaction- olfactory center is formed by pyriform cortex and
amygdaloid
• 2 Regulation of endocrine glands– by Hypothalamus
• 3 Regulation of autonomic function by Hypothalamus
• 4 Regulation of food intake by Hypothalamus and amygdaloid
• 5 Regulation of circadian rhythm by hypothalamus
• 6 Regulation of sexual function by hypothalamus
• 7 Role in emotional state by Hippocampus and hypothalamus
• 8 Role in Memory by Hippocampus and Papez circuit
• 9 Role in Motivation- By Hypothalamus
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS

• Dr Oyeniran Ayodeji Olaolu

 Hypothalamus
• The hypothalamus is a small area in the ventral
diencephalon just below the thalamus of
the forebrain, and formed by groups of nuclei
scattered in the walls and floor of the third
ventricle, extending from optic chiasma to
mamillary body. And it is a functional link
between the nervous and endocrine systems.
• The hypothalamus controls most of the endocrine
glands within the body, largely through
stimulation of the Pituitary Gland by secretion
of neurohormones.
 NUCLEI OF HYPOTHALAMUS
•The Hypothalamic nuclei are divided into three groups: Anterior or
preoptic ,middle or tuberal and posterior or mamillary groups.
(i) Anterior or preoptic group
(a)Preoptic nucleus
(b)paraventricular nucleus
(c) Anterior nucleus
(d) Supraoptic nucleus
(ii) Middle or tuberal group
(a) Dorsomedial nucleus
(b) Ventromedial nucleus
(c) Lateral nucleus
(d) Arcuate (tuberal) nucleus
(iii)Posterior or mamillary group
(a) posterior nucleus
(b) mamillary body.
 CONNECTIONS OF HYPOTHALAMUS
• AFFERENT CONNECTIONS
-Medial forebrain bundle: from limbic cortex to preoptic nucleus,lateral nucleus
and mamillary
-Fornix : From Hippocampus to mamillary body
-Strioterminalis: From amygdaloid to preoptic nucleus
-Corticohypothalamic fibers: From prefrontal area(8)and precentral area(6) of
cerebral cortex to supraoptic to paraventricular nuclei
-Pallidohypothalamic fibers: From globus pallidus to diffused area of hypothalamus.
- Thalamohypothalamic fibres: From dorsomedial and midline nuclei of thalamus
to diffuse area of hypothalamus
- Fibers from Reticular formation to diffuse area
- Fibers from retina to supraoptic and ventriomedial nuclei
 CONNECTIONS OF HYPOTHALAMUS
• EFFERENT CONNECTIONS
- Mamillothalamic tract: From mamillary body to anterior
thalamic nuclei
-Mamillotegmental tract : from mamillary body to tegmental
nuclei of midbrain
- Periventricular fibers: Fibers from posterior, supraoptic and
tuberal nuclei of hypothalamus through the periventricular
gray matter to the Reticular formation in brainstem and spinal
cord ,Dorsomedial nucleus of Thalamus and Frontal lobe of
Cerebral cortex
- Hypothalamohypophyseal tract: From Supraoptic and
paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus to posterior
pituitary
 FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHALAMUS
• The part of brain concerned with homeostasis of the body .
Its extensive connections allow regulations of vital functions
of the body like :
(1) Endocrine functions-
(a) Secretion of posterior pituitary hormone , Antiduretic
Hormone(ADH) and Oxytocin by axomic or axoplasmic flow
through the fibers of hypothalamohypophyseal tracts to
posterior pituitary.
(b)Secretion of releasing hormone and inhibitory hormone to
control anterior pituitary. These hormones secreted by
hypothalamus are transported through
hypothalamohypophyseal portal blood vessels to anterior
pituitary.
 FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHALAMUS
The releasing and inhibitory hormone are(7) ;
-Growth hormone releasing hormone(GHRH)
- -Growth hormone releasing polypeptide(GHRP)
- Thyrotropic realeasing hormone(TRH)
- Corticotropin releasing hormone(CRH)
- Gonadotropin releasing Hormone(GnRH)
- -Growth hormone inhibitory hormone(GHIH)
- Prolactin inhibitory hormone.(PIH)
(c) Control of adrenal cortex is regulated by adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH) which regulated by CRH
(d) Control of Adrenal Medulla by sending impulse through
sympathetic fibers that cause the release of cathecholamine..
 FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHALAMUS
(2) Regulation of Autonomic nervous system: The sympathetic division
of ANS is regulated by posterior and lateral nuclei while
parasympathetic is controlled by anterior group.
(3) Regulation of Heart rate through vasomotor center in medulla
oblongata.(Heart rate increase by stimulation of posterior and
lateral nuclei and decrease by stimulation of preoptic nucleus).
(4) Regulation of blood pressure through Vasomotor center.( posterior
and lateral nuclei stimulation increase arterial blood pressure an
stimulation of preoptic nucleus decrease blood pressure).
(5) Regulation of body Temperature (through heat loss center in the
anterior group of nuclei and heat gain center in the posterior group.
(6)Regulation of food intake through feeding and satiety center
((7) Regulation of water balance through Thirst mechanism and ADH
mechanism
(
 FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHALAMUS
(8) Regulation of sleep and wakefulness
(9) Role in Behavior and emotional change
(10) Regulation of sexual function
(11) Regulation of response to smell
(12) Role in circadian rhythm