PSY 106: PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY 3.

Axon - carries information (​action potential​) from cell body to

CH 2: Structure and Functions for the Cells of the Nervous System terminal buttons

Type Description Photo

Structure and Functions of the Nervous System
Multipolar ● 1 axon, many
● Sensory neurons - detects changes in the environment and sends
dendrites
information into the central nervous system
● most common CNS
● Motor neurons - found in the central nervous system; controls the
● looks like a golf club
effects
● Interneurons - in between the sensory neurons and the motor
neurons Bipolar ● 1 axon, 1 dendritic

○ Local interneurons - small pieces of information tree

○ Relay interneurons - local interneurons of one region of ● detects and

the brain to another communicates the

● 2 Basic Divisions of the Nervous System events from the

○ Central Nervous System - brain and spinal cord environment

○ Peripheral Nervous System - nerves outside the CNS ● Usually sensory

● looks like a long bone

CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Basic Structure of Neurons
1. Soma - cell body; where nucleus is found
a. Nucleus - controls the life processes of the cell
2. Dendrites - recipients of messages; transmitted through the
synapse
a. Communication at a synapse is unidirectional (from
terminal to membrane)

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 i. Genes produce mRNA to make protein which are
Unipolar ● 1 stalk
enzymes that catalyzes and controls chemical
● common in sensory
reactions
organs
3. Cytoplasm - viscous semiliquid substance contained in the cell
● with branching
4. Mitochondria - provide adenosine triphosphate for energy
(aborizations)
a. Cristae - wrinkles
5. Endoplasmic reticulum - storage reservoir; transporting channels
a. Rough ER - with ribosomes
b. Smooth ER - for segregation of molecules
6. Golgi Apparatus - special form of smooth ER; wrapping or
packaging agent
a. Produces lysosomes which breakdown substances not
needed by the cell

4. Terminal buttons - end of a branch of an axon; forms synapses 7. Cytoskeleton - provides the shape of the neuron

with other neurons a. microtubules are the thickest strands

a. Secrete n
​ eurotransmitter​, which excites or inhibits the b. Axoplasmic transport - process by which substances are

receiving cell propelled along microtubule that run the length of the
axon

Internal Structure of Neurons i. Anterograde - soma to terminal buttons;

1. Membrane - boundary of the cell; double layer of lipids accomplished by kinesin

2. Nucleus - where nucleolus and chromosomes are found ii. Retrograde - terminal buttons to soma;

a. Nucleolus - production of ribosomes accomplished by dynein

b. Chromosomes - DNA, genetic information

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SUPPORTING CELLS ● Prevents unwanted chemicals from interfering with function,
Glia: neuroglia / “Nerve glue” (CNS) ● Area postrema: part of the brain that controls vomiting
● Surrounds, holds neurons, Supplies nutrients and chemicals ○ Blood Brain barrier is weaker in this area to detect toxic
● Regrowth: unlike PNS, axons stop elongating and sprout dendrites chemicals in the blood
immediately; damage stays as scar tissue
1. Astrocyte
○ Physical support, Cleans, Produces needed chemicals for
neuron function, nourishment, controls surrounding
chemical composition
2. Oligodendrocytes
○ Supports axons, produces myelin sheaths, CNS
■ Exposed part = nodes of ranvier
3. Microglia
○ Phagocytes: dead/dying neurons & invading
microorganisms, Inflammatory reactions

Schwann Cells
● PNS, produces myelin sheaths, surrounds axons
● Aid in digestion of dead/dying axons
● Rearrange into cylinders which guide regrowth of axons
○ Repair: Allows elongation before sprouting of dendrites
Blood-Brain Barrier
● Barrier between brain cells and blood, selective permeability
● Glucose is directly delivered through transporters
● Where transporters get rid of toxic waste from the brain

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ANSWER TO SIR’S STUDY GUIDE ● Which structure defines the boundary of the cell?​ Membrane
Neurons (plasma membrane?)
Basic structure ● Where do chromosomes reside? ​Nucleus
● Soma ● What special molecule do mitochondria provide? A
​ denosine
● Dendrites Triphosphate (ATP)
○ Messages that pass from neuron to neuron are ● What is a special form of smooth endoplasmic reticulum where
transmitted across the ​synapse​. complex molecules are assembled? ​Golgi Apparatus
● Axons ● Which structure gives shape to the neuron? ​Cytoskeleton, made
○ The basic message an axon carries is called an ​action up of microtubules
potential​.
○ Differentiate multipolar, bipolar and unipolar neurons. ● True or false: Neurons make up the overwhelming majority of
■ Multipolar: most common CNS, looks like a golf cells in the CNS.​ False, ½ Neurons, ½ supporting cells
club
■ Bipolar: usually sensory; detects and
communicates the events from the environment,
looks like a long bone
■ Unipolar: sensory for skin, proprioception, organs
basta yung may branching
○ Which is the most common? M
​ ultipolar neurons
○ Which one is usually sensory? B
​ ipolar and Unipolar
neurons
○ Which one detects events? ​Bipolar neurons
● Terminal Buttons
○ These secrete a chemical called a n
​ eurotransmitters​.
Internal Structure

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COMMUNICATION WITHIN A NEURON
● Overview
○ Sensory neuron detects stimuli. It’s dendrites that are
stimulated and send the signal down the axon to the
terminal button. Terminal buttons release
neurotransmitters which excite interneurons. The
message is sent down its axon to its terminal button.
Terminal button releases neurotransmitters which excites
the motor neurons. Motor neurons are excited and release
neurotransmitters which stimulate the muscle.
○ Excitation can be inhibited by the brain to prevent reflexes
■ Inhibitory neurotransmitter decreases activity of
motor neuron.
Measuring Electric Potentials of Axons
● Squid axon: 0.5 mm diameter
● Electrodes​: electrical conductors that provide a path for
electricity to enter or leave the medium; used to apply electrical
stimulation or to record electrical potentials
○ Microelectrode
● Membrane potential:
○ Electrical charge across cell membrane
○ Difference in electrical potential inside and outside the cell
● Oscilloscope​: measures and records voltage on a graph vs. time
● Resting potential:​ -70 mV
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○ Depolarization: making it more positive
○ Hyperpolarization: more polarized/negative than usual
● Action Potential
○ Message carried by the axon
● Threshold of excitation:​ depolarizing shock number 4
○ Must reach to produce action potential
The Membrane Potential: Balance of Two Forces
Force of Diffusion (D)
● Molecules distribute themselves evenly; Higher → Lower conc.
Force of Electrostatic Pressure (EP)
● Opposite charges attract; Like charges repel
● Cations: +; Anions -
● Electrolytes: substance that dissolve in water and dissociate into
opposing charges (ions)
Ions in the EC and IC Fluid
● Intracellular fluid: negatively charged organic anions and
intermediate metabolic products of the cell, K+
○ K+: EP in; D out
● Extracellular fluid: Na+, Cl-
○ Na+: EP in; D in; but it isn’t as permeable
○ Cl-: EP out; D in
● Sodium-potassium pump
 ○ ATP driven sodium-potassium transporters
○ 3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in
○ Upto 40% of cells metabolism is used
Action Potential
● Na+ isn’t as permeable and is always pumped out so
● (Na+) Ion channels : proteins that allow ions to enter or leave cell
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1. Threshold reached = Na+ channels open (depolarization); EP in,
D in; voltage-dependent ion channels; -70 mV - +40 mV
2. K+ voltage-gated channels open later (less sensitive)
3. Na+ channels become refractory: blocked until resting membrane
potential is reached
4. K+ voltage-gated channels remain open → resting membrane
potential, (slowly closes)
5. Na+ channels reset
6. Hyperpolarization: K+ channels still open, overshoots
Conduction of the Action Potential
● Remains constant in size
● Rate Law: rate of firing varies → stronger =more
● All-or-none law
● One way traffic
● Myelinated: less extracellular fluid around axon
○ Only at node of Ranvier exposed
○ Electrical signal gets smaller as it travels along the axon
but is still enough to trigger another one. (decremental
conduction)
○ Saltatory Conduction
■ Economic: less Na+ in → Less Na+ pumped out
■ Faster transmission
Another way to increase speed is to increase size

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COMMUNICATION BETWEEN NEURONS
Synaptic transmission​ – primary means of communication between
neurons; transmission of one neuron to another through a synapse
Postsynaptic potentials​ – alterations in the membrane potential of a
postsynaptic neuron, produced by liberation of neurotransmitter at a
synapse; increase or decrease the rate of firing of the axon of the
postsynaptic neuron
Binding site​ – the location on a receptor protein to which a ligand binds
Ligand​ – a chemical that binds with the binding site of a receptor
● Neurotransmitters are natural ligands produced and released by
neurons
Structure of Synapses
● Location of synapses:
o Axodendritic –
​ on dendrites; occurs in dendritic spine
(small bud at the surface of a dendrite, with which a
terminal button of another neuron forms a synapse)
o Axosomatic ​– on soma
o Axoaxonic​ – on axon
● Presynaptic membrane​ – the membrane of a terminal button
that lies adjacent to the postsynaptic membrane and ​through
which the neurotransmitter is released
● Postsynaptic membrane​ – the cell membrane opposite the
terminal button in a synapse; the membrane of the cell that
receives the message
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● Synaptic cleft​ – the space between the presynaptic and
postsynaptic membrane; through which the neurotransmitter
diffuses
● Structures in the cytoplasm of a terminal button​:
o Mitochondria​ – implies that terminal buttons need
energy to perform its functions
o Synaptic vesicles​ – small, rounded objects in the shape
of spheres in the terminal buttons; contains molecules of
a neurotransmitter
▪ Greatest numbers around the part of the
presynaptic membrane that faces the synaptic
cleft (near the release zone)
▪ Large synaptic vesicles – dense-core; contain
different peptides
▪ Small synaptic vesicles – contain molecules of
neurotransmitters; produced in the Golgi
apparatus in the soma -> carried by fast
axoplasmic transport
● Transport proteins – fill vesicles with the
neurotransmitter
● Trafficking proteins – involved in the
release of a neurotransmitter and
recycling of the vesicles
▪ Release Zone – a region of the interior of the
presynaptic membrane of a synapse to which
 synaptic vesicles attach and release their
neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
o Microtubules ​– transporting material between soma and
terminal button
Release of Neurotransmitters
● How presynaptic vesicles release the neurotransmitter:
o A population of synaptic vesicles are docked against the
presynaptic membrane
▪ Docking is accomplished when clusters of protein
molecules attack to other protein molecules
located in the presynaptic membrane
o When docking is achieved, the neurotransmitter is
released into the synaptic cleft
● Ca​2+​ ions are located at highest concentration outside of the cell
o When membrane of terminal button is depolarized,
voltage-gated calcium channels open and C
​ a​2+​ ions move
into the cell​ (by electrostatic pressure and diffusion)
o Fusion pore – hole through both membranes that enables
them to fuse together
▪ Ca​2+​ ions bind with protein that join the
membrane that make the segments of the
clusters of protein molecules move apart
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● Pools of synaptic vesicles:
o Release ready vesicles​ – docked against the inside of
the presynaptic membrane and ready to release their
contents when action potential arrives (<1%)
o Recycling pool​ – released when rate of firing increases
(10-15%)
o Reserve pool​ – released when rate of firing increases
(85-90%)
● Kiss and Run​ – when synaptic vesicles release most or all of
their neurotransmitter, the fusion pore closes, and the vesicles
break away from the presynaptic membrane and the vesicles get
filled with neurotransmitter again
● Bulk endocytosis​ – how membranes of vesicles in the reserve
pool are recycled
o Large pieces of the membrane of the terminal button fold
inward, break off, and enter the cytoplasm
o New vesicles are formed from small buds that break off of
a membrane
Activation of Receptors
● Postsynaptic receptors​ – receptor molecules in postsynaptic
membrane that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter
● Neurotransmitter-dependent ion channel​ – ion channel that
opens when a molecule of a neurotransmitter binds with a
postsynaptic receptor
● How neurotransmitters open ion channels: signal that results in the opening of the ion
o Direct​ – when neurotransmitter-dependent ion channel channel or causes other events to occur in the cell
has its own binding site and when an appropriate ● Cyclic AMP –
​ ​first second messenger to
neurotransmitter attaches to it, the ion channel opens be discovered
▪ Ionotropic receptor​ – receptor that contains a ● Metabotropic receptors take longer to begin and last longer
binding site for a neurotransmitter and an ion compared to ionotropic receptors
channel that opens when a molecule of the
neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site
● Sensitive to acetylcholine and contain
Postsynaptic Potentials
sodium channels -> when these channels
● Postsynaptic potentials are determined by the particular type of
are open, the sodium ions enter and
ion channel that they open
depolarize the membrane
● Excitatory postsynaptic potential (depolarization) –
​
o Indirect ​– chain of metabolic events
excitatory depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a
▪ Metabotropic receptors​ – contains binding site
synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the
for neurotransmitter and activates an enzyme that
terminal button; neutralized by chloride channels
begins a series of events that opens an ion
● Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (hyperpolarization) ​–
channel elsewhere in the membrane of the cell
inhibitory hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a
when a neurotransmitter attaches to its binding
synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the
site; require cell to expel metabolic energy
terminal button
▪ G protein ​– protein coupled to a metabotropic
Termination of Postsynaptic Potentials
receptor; conveys messages to other molecules
● Reuptake​ – rapid removal of neurotransmitter from the synaptic
when a ligand binds with and activates the
cleft by the terminal button; reentry of a neurotransmitter just
receptor
liberated by a terminal button back through its membrane, thus
▪ Second messenger ​– a chemical produced
terminating the postsynaptic potential
when a G protein activates an enzyme; carries a

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 ● Enzymatic deactivation ​– the destruction of a neurotransmitter
by an enzyme after its release
o Acetylcholine​ ​(ACh) –
​ mediates transmission at
synapses on muscle fibers and in some synapses between
neurons in the CNS; responsible for muscle contraction
o Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) –
​ enzyme that destroys
ACh by cleaving into its constituents (choline and acetate)
-> terminating postsynaptic potential.
▪ 1 AChE : 5000 ACh
● Myasthenia gravis​ – grave muscle weakness; autoimmune
disease that resembles effects of curare (poison that blocks neural
transmission at the synapses on muscles).
o Physostigmine – deactivates acetylcholinesterase
● Multiple sclerosis –
​ autoimmune disease; immune system
destroys ACh receptors as fast as they produce them
Effects of Postsynaptic Potentials
Neural Integration
● interaction of the effects of excitatory and inhibitory synapses on
a particular neuron; the process by which inhibitory and excitatory
potentials summate and control the rate of firing a neuron
o The rate at which an axon fires is determined by the
relative activity of the excitatory and inhibitory synapses
on the soma and dendrites of the cell
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o The rate at which a neuron fires is controlled by the
relative activity of the excitatory and inhibitory synapses
on its dendrites and soma
Autoreceptors
● Postsynaptic receptors – detect the presence of a
neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft and initiate excitatory or
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
● Autoreceptor – receptor molecule located on a neuron that
responds to the neurotransmitter released by that neuron
o Regulate internal processes (e.g. synthesis and release of
neurotransmitters)
o Metabotropic
o Mostly inhibitory
Other Types of Synapses
● Axoaxonic synapses work differently that axosomatic and
axodendritic; alter amounts of neurotransmitter released
o Presynaptic inhibition​ – decrease amount of
neurotransmitter released
o Presynaptic facilitation​ – increase amount of
neurotransmitter released
● Dendrodendritic synapses​ – synapses between dendrites; little
is known about their function but may perform regulatory
functions (i.e. perhaps helping to organize the activity of groups of
neurons
● Other synapses are electrical in nature (rather than chemical)
 o Gap junction​ – special junction between cells that
permits direct communication by means of electrical
coupling; changes in the membrane potential of one
neuron induce changes in the membrane potential of the
other
▪ Common on invertebrates

Nonsynaptic Channel Communication

● Neuromodulators​ – naturally secreting substance that acts like
a neurotransmitter except that it is not restricted to the synaptic
cleft but diffuses through extracellular fluid
o Mostly peptides (chain of amino acids)
● Hormones​ – secreted by cells of endocrine glands or other
organs (e.g. stomach, intestines, kidneys and brain)
o Distributed through the rest of the body through the
bloodstream
● Target cells​ – contain receptors for a particular protein; only
cells of this hormone responds to its presence
● Steroid hormones​ – consist of very small fat-soluble molecules
derived from cholesterol; pass through the cell membrane (since
they are soluble in lipids); affect their target cells by attaching to
receptors found within the nucleus
o Sex hormones

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 o Describe the three processes of recycling these vesicles
ANSWERS TO SIR’S STUDY GUIDE ▪ Which is fastest? Which is slowest?

Structure of the Synapse Activation of Receptors

● What is a l​ igand​? ​a chemical that binds with the binding site of a ● Differentiate direct/ionotropic receptors from
receptor indirect/metabotropic receptors.
● What are b​ inding sites? ​the location on a receptor protein to o What is a ​G protein?
which a ligand binds o The first second messenger to be discovered was C
​ yclic
● Describe the contents of the synapse AMP​.
● What are the two kinds of synaptic vesicles? ​Large and o What is the advantage of the metabotropic receptor?
small
● What do they contain? Postsynaptic Potentials
● Where are they produced?
● Synapses can occur in ​three p ​ laces. What are they? ● Which ion is most important for EPSPs? n​ a
● Which ion is most important for IPSPs? ​k
● Axodendritic ● What do chloride ion channels do?
● What do calcium ion channels do?
● Axoaxonic ● Describe the two main methods of PSP termination o Where is
acetylcholine found?
● axosomatic o What is acetylcholinesterase? ​Enzyme that destroys ACh
o What is curare? ​Poison that causes muscle weakness
Release of Neurotransmitters ● How do all these things tie into myasthenia gravis? ​Myasthenia
gravis is an autoimmune disease that causes grave muscle
● What is the r​ elease zone​? a​ region of the interior of the weakness similar to that of curare
presynaptic membrane of a synapse to which synaptic vesicles
attach and release their neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft Neural Integration
o What kind of ​ion channels ​does it contain? C ​ alcium
● What is a f​ usion pore​? h
​ ole through both membranes that ● What is neural integration? ​interaction of the effects of excitatory
enables them to fuse together and inhibitory synapses on a particular neuron; the process by
● Describe the three distinct pools of synaptic vesicles which inhibitory and excitatory potentials summate and control
o Reserve, release ready and recycle the rate of firing a neuron

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 o Does n​ eural inhibition ​always produce b ​ ehavioral ● What are h ​ ormones? s​ ecreted by cells of endocrine glands or
inhibition​? Why or why not? ​No, because some organs other organs (e.g. stomach, intestines, kidneys and brain)
already inhibit therefore neural inhibition to that organ ● Where do s ​ teroids b
​ ind? ​consist of very small fat-soluble
may actually stimulate it molecules derived from cholesterol; pass through the cell
membrane (since they are soluble in lipids); affect their target
Autoreceptors cells by attaching to receptors found within the nucleus
o How do they pass through cell membranes?
● Direct or indirect?​ indirect
● Excitatory or inhibitory? i​ nhibitory
● Why and what for? r​ eceptor molecule located on a neuron that
responds to the neurotransmitter released by that neuron;
Regulate internal processes (e.g. synthesis and release of
neurotransmitters)

Other Synapses

● What do a​ xoaxonic s​ ynapses do? ​alter amounts of

neurotransmitter released
o What is presynaptic inhibition? D ​ ecrease amount of
neurotransmitter
o What is presynaptic facilitation?​ Increase amount of
neurotransmitter
● What is a g​ ap junction? ​ ​special junction between cells that
permits direct communication by means of electrical coupling;
changes in the membrane potential of one neuron induce changes
in the membrane potential of the other

Nonsynaptic Communication

● What is a n​ euromodulator? ​naturally secreting substance that

acts like a neurotransmitter except that it is not restricted to the
synaptic cleft but diffuses through extracellular fluid

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