Chapter 7
The Nervous System
Functions of the Nervous System
1. Sensory input—gathering information
o Sensory receptors monitor changes, called
stimuli, occurring inside and outside the
body
2. Integration
o Nervous system processes and interprets
sensory input and decides whether action is
needed
3. Motor output
o A response, or effect, activates muscles or
glands
Organization of the Nervous System
 Nervous system classifications are based on:
o Structures (structural classification)
o Activities (functional classification)
Structural Classification
 Central nervous system (CNS)
o Organs
 Brain
 Spinal cord
o Function
 Integration; command center
 Interprets incoming sensory
information
 Issues outgoing instructions
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
o Nerves extending from the brain and spinal
cord
 Spinal nerves—carry impulses to
and from the spinal cord
 Cranial nerves—carry impulses to
and from the brain
o Functions
 Serve as communication lines
among sensory organs, the brain
and spinal cord, and glands or
muscles
Functional Classification
 Sensory (afferent) division
o Nerve fibers that carry information to the
central nervous system
 Somatic sensory (afferent) fibers
carry information from the skin,
skeletal muscles, and joints
 Visceral sensory (afferent) fibers
carry information from visceral
organs
 Motor (efferent) division
o Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from
the central nervous system organs to
effector organs (muscles and glands)
o Two subdivisions
 Somatic nervous system =
voluntary
o Consciously (voluntarily)
controls skeletal muscles
 Autonomic nervous system =
involuntary
o Automatically controls
smooth and cardiac
muscles and glands
o Further divided into the
sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous
systems
Nervous Tissue: Support Cells
 Support cells in the CNS are grouped together as
neuroglia
 General functions
o Support
o Insulate
o Protect neurons
Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function
 Nervous tissue is made up of two principal cell types
o Supporting cells (called neuroglia, or glial
cells, or glia)
 Resemble neurons
 Unable to conduct nerve impulses
 Never lose the ability to divide
o Neurons
Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells
 CNS glial cells: astrocytes
o Abundant, star-shaped cells
o Brace and anchor neurons to blood
capillaries
o Determine permeability and exchanges
between blood capillaries and neurons
o Protect neurons from harmful substances in
blood
o Control the chemical environment of the
brain
 CNS glial cells: microglia
o Spiderlike phagocytes
o Monitor health of nearby neurons
o Dispose of debris
 CNS glial cells: ependymal cells
o Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
o Cilia assist with circulation of cerebrospinal
fluid
 CNS glial cells: oligodendrocytes
o Wrap around nerve fibers in the central
nervous system
o Produce myelin sheaths
 PNS glial cells
o Schwann cells
 Form myelin sheath around nerve
fibers in the PNS
o Satellite cells
 Protect and cushion neuron cell
bodies
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
 Neurons = nerve cells
o Cells specialized to transmit messages
(nerve impulses)
o Major regions of all neurons
 Cell body—nucleus and metabolic
center of the cell
 Processes—fibers that extend from
the cell body
 Cell body is the metabolic center of the neuron
o Nucleus with large nucleolus
o Nissl bodies
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum
 o Neurofibrils
 Intermediate filaments that maintain
cell shape
 Processes (fibers)
o Dendrites—conduct impulses toward the
cell body
 Neurons may have hundreds of
dendrites
o Axons—conduct impulses away from the
cell body
 Neurons have only one axon arising
from the cell body at the axon hillock
 End in axon terminals, which
contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
 Axon terminals are separated from
the next neuron by a gap
o Synaptic cleft—gap between axon terminals
and the next neuron
o Synapse—functional junction between
nerves where a nerve impulse is transmitted
 Myelin
o White, fatty material covering axons
o Protects and insulates fibers
o Speeds nerve impulse transmission
 Myelin sheaths
o Schwann cells—wrap axons in a jelly roll–
like fashion (PNS) to form the myelin sheath
 Neurilemma—part of the Schwann
cell external to the myelin sheath
 Nodes of Ranvier—gaps in myelin
sheath along the axon
o Oligodendrocytes—produce myelin sheaths
around axons of the CNS
 Lack a neurilemma
 Terminology
o Nuclei—clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
o Ganglia—collections of cell bodies outside
the CNS in the PNS
o Tracts—bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS
o Nerves—bundles of nerve fibers in the PNS
o White matter—collections of myelinated
fibers (tracts)
o Gray matter—mostly unmyelinated fibers
and cell bodies
 Functional classification
o Sensory (afferent) neurons
 Carry impulses from the sensory
receptors to the CNS
 Receptors include:
o Cutaneous sense organs in
skin
o Proprioceptors in muscles
and tendons
o Motor (efferent) neurons
 Carry impulses from the central
nervous system to viscera and/or
muscles and glands
o Interneurons (association neurons)
 Cell bodies located in the CNS
 Connect sensory and motor neurons
 Structural classification
o Based on number of processes extending
from the cell body
o Multipolar neurons—many extensions from
the cell body
 All motor and interneurons are
multipolar
 Most common structural type
o Bipolar neurons—one axon and one
dendrite
 Located in special sense organs,
such as nose and eye
 Rare in adults
o Unipolar neurons—have a short single
process leaving the cell body
 Sensory neurons found in PNS
ganglia
 Conduct impulses both toward and
away from the cell body
 Functional properties of neurons
o Irritability
 Ability to respond to a stimulus and
convert it to a nerve impulse
o Conductivity
 Ability to transmit the impulse to
other neurons, muscles, or glands
 Electrical conditions of a resting neuron’s membrane
o The plasma membrane at rest is inactive
(polarized)
o Fewer positive ions are inside the neuron’s
plasma membrane than outside
 K+ is the major positive ion inside
the cell
 Na+ is the major positive ion outside
the cell
o As long as the inside of the membrane is
more negative (fewer positive ions) than the
outside, the cell remains inactive
 Action potential initiation and generation
o A stimulus changes the permeability of the
neuron’s membrane to sodium ions
o Sodium channels now open, and sodium
(Na+) diffuses into the neuron
o The inward rush of sodium ions changes the
polarity at that site and is called
depolarization
o A graded potential (localized depolarization)
exists where the inside of the membrane is
more positive and the outside is less positive
o If the stimulus is strong enough and sodium
influx great enough, local depolarization
activates the neuron to conduct an action
potential (nerve impulse)
 Propagation of the action potential
o If enough sodium enters the cell, the action
potential (nerve impulse) starts and is
propagated over the entire axon
o All-or-none response means the nerve
impulse either is propagated or is not
o Fibers with myelin sheaths conduct nerve
impulses more quickly
 Repolarization
o Membrane permeability changes again—
becoming impermeable to sodium ions and
permeable to potassium ions
o Potassium ions rapidly diffuse out of the
neuron, repolarizing the membrane
o Repolarization involves restoring the inside
of the membrane to a negative charge and
the outer surface to a positive charge
o Initial conditions of sodium and potassium
ions are restored using the sodium-
potassium pump
o This pump, using ATP, restores the original
configuration
o Three sodium ions are ejected from the cell
while two potassium ions are returned to the
cell
 o Until repolarization is complete, a neuron
cannot conduct another nerve impulse
 Transmission of the signal at synapses
o Step 1: When the action potential reaches
the axon terminal, the electrical charge
opens calcium channels
o Step 2: Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny
vesicles containing the neurotransmitter
chemical to fuse with the axonal membrane
o Step 3: The entry of calcium into the axon
terminal causes porelike openings to form,
releasing the neurotransmitter into the
synaptic cleft
o Step 4: The neurotransmitter molecules
diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to
receptors on the membrane of the next
neuron
o Step 5: If enough neurotransmitter is
released, a graded potential will be
generated
 Eventually an action potential (nerve
impulse) will occur in the neuron
beyond the synapse
o Step 6: The electrical changes prompted by
neurotransmitter binding are brief
o The neurotransmitter is quickly removed
from the synapse either by reuptake or by
enzymatic activity
o Transmission of an impulse is
electrochemical
 Transmission down neuron is
electrical
 Transmission to next neuron is
chemical
 Reflexes are rapid, predictable, and involuntary
responses to stimuli
 Reflexes occur over neural pathways called reflex
arcs
 Two types of reflexes
o Somatic reflexes
o Autonomic reflexes
 Somatic reflexes
o Reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles
o Involuntary, although skeletal muscle is
normally under voluntary control
o Example: pulling your hand away from a hot
object
 Autonomic reflexes
o Regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the
heart, and glands
o Example: regulation of smooth muscles,
heart and blood pressure, glands, digestive
system
 Five elements of a reflex arc
1. Sensory receptor—reacts to a stimulus
2. Sensory neuron—carries message to the
integration center
3. Integration center (CNS)—processes
information and directs motor output
4. Motor neuron—carries message to an
effector
5. Effector organ—is the muscle or gland to
be stimulated
 Two-neuron reflex arcs
o Simplest type
o Example: patellar (knee-jerk) reflex
 Three-neuron reflex arcs
o Consists of five elements: receptor, sensory
neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, and
effector
o Example: flexor (withdrawal) reflex
Central Nervous System (CNS)
 Functional anatomy of the brain
o Brain regions
 Cerebral hemispheres
 Diencephalon
 Brain stem
 Cerebellum
Functional Anatomy of the Brain
 Cerebral hemispheres are paired (left and right)
superior parts of the brain
o Include more than half of the brain mass
o The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and
grooves (sulci)
o Fissures are deeper grooves
o Lobes are named for the cranial bones that
lie over them
 Three main regions of cerebral hemisphere
1. Cortex is superficial gray matter
2. White matter
3. Basal nuclei are deep pockets of gray matter
 Cerebral cortex
o Primary somatic sensory area
 Located in parietal lobe posterior to
central sulcus
 Receives impulses from the body’s
sensory receptors
o Pain, temperature, light
touch (except for special
senses)
 Sensory homunculus is a spatial
map
 Left side of the primary somatic
sensory area receives impulses
from right side (and vice versa)
 Cerebral areas involved in special senses
o Visual area (occipital lobe)
o Auditory area (temporal lobe)
o Olfactory area (temporal lobe)
o Primary motor area
 Located anterior to the central
sulcus in the frontal lobe
 Allows us to consciously move
skeletal muscles
 Motor neurons form pyramidal
(corticospinal) tract, which descends
to spinal cord
 Motor homunculus is a spatial map
o Broca’s area (motor speech area)
 Involved in our ability to speak
 Usually in left hemisphere
o Other specialized areas
 Anterior association area (frontal
lobe)
 Posterior association area (posterior
cortex)
 Speech area (for sounding out
words)
 Cerebral white matter o Includes important fiber tracts
o Composed of fiber tracts deep to the gray o Contains important centers that control:
matter  Heart rate
 Corpus callosum connects  Blood pressure
hemispheres  Breathing
 Tracts, such as the corpus callosum,  Swallowing
are known as commissures  Vomiting
 Association fiber tracts connect o Fourth ventricle lies posterior to pons and
areas within a hemisphere medulla
 Projection fiber tracts connect the  Brain stem: reticular formation
cerebrum with lower CNS centers o Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain
 Basal nuclei stem
o “Islands” of gray matter buried deep within o Involved in motor control of visceral organs
the white matter of the cerebrum o Reticular activating system (RAS)
o Regulate voluntary motor activities by  Plays a role in awake/sleep cycles
modifying instructions sent to skeletal and consciousness
muscles by the primary motor cortex  Filter for incoming sensory
 Diencephalon information
o Sits on top of the brain stem
o Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
o Made of three structures  Cerebrum
1. Thalamus o Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
2. Hypothalamus o Outer cortex of gray matter and inner region
3. Epithalamus of white matter
 Diencephalon: thalamus o Controls balance
o Encloses the third ventricle o Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle
o Relay station for sensory impulses passing activity and coordination of body movements
upward to the cerebral cortex
o Transfers impulses to the correct part of the
cortex for localization and interpretation Protection of the Central Nervous System
 Diencephalon: hypothalamus  Meninges
o Makes up the floor of the diencephalon  Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
o Important autonomic nervous system center  Blood-brain barrier
 Regulates body temperature
 Regulates water balance
 Regulates metabolism  Meninges
o Houses the limbic center for emotions o Dura mater
o Regulates the nearby pituitary gland  Outermost leathery layer
o Houses mammillary bodies for olfaction  Double-layered external covering
(smell) o Periosteum—attached to
 Diencephalon: epithalamus inner surface of the skull
o Forms the roof of the third ventricle o Meningeal layer—outer
o Houses the pineal body (an endocrine covering of the brain
gland)  Folds inward in several areas
o Includes the choroid plexus—forms o Falx cerebri
cerebrospinal fluid o Tentorium cerebelli
 Brain stem o Arachnoid layer
o Attaches to the spinal cord  Middle layer
o Parts of the brain stem  Weblike extensions span the
1. Midbrain subarachnoid space to attach it to
2. Pons the pia mater
3. Medulla oblongata  Subarachnoid space is filled with
 Brain stem: midbrain cerebrospinal fluid
o Extends from the mammillary bodies to the  Arachnoid granulations protrude
pons inferiorly through the dura mater and absorb
o Cerebral aqueduct (tiny canal) connects the cerebrospinal fluid into venous
third and fourth ventricles blood
o Two bulging fiber tracts, cerebral peduncles, o Pia mater
convey ascending and descending impulses  Internal layer
o Four rounded protrusions, corpora  Clings to the surface of the brain
and spinal cord
quadrigemina, are visual and auditory reflex
 Cerebrospinal fluid
centers
o Similar to blood plasma in composition
 Brain stem: pons
o The rounded structure protruding just below o Formed continually by the choroid plexuses
the midbrain  Choroid plexuses—capillaries in the
o Mostly composed of fiber tracts ventricles of the brain
o CSF forms a watery cushion to protect the
o Includes nuclei involved in the control of
brain and spinal cord
breathing
o Circulated in the arachnoid space,
 Brain stem: medulla oblongata
o The most inferior part of the brain stem that ventricles, and central canal of the spinal
cord
merges into the spinal cord
 Cerebrospinal fluid circulation
1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexus of
each ventricle
2. CSF flows through the ventricles and into
the subarachnoid space via the median and
lateral apertures. Some CSF flows through
the central canal of the spinal cord
3. CSF flows through the subarachnoid space
4. CSF is absorbed into the dural venous
sinuses via the arachnoid villi
 Blood-brain barrier
o Includes the least permeable capillaries of
the body
o Allows water, glucose, and amino acids to
pass through the capillary walls
o Excludes many potentially harmful
substances from entering the brain, such as
wastes
o Useless as a barrier against some
substances
Brain Dysfunctions
 Traumatic brain injuries
o Concussion
 Slight brain injury
 Typically little permanent brain
damage occurs
o Contusion
 Marked nervous tissue destruction
occurs
 Coma may occur
o Death may occur after head blows due to:
 Intracranial hemorrhage
 Cerebral edema
 Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), or stroke
o Results when blood circulation to a brain
area is blocked and brain tissue dies
o Loss of some functions or death may result
 Hemiplegia—one-sided paralysis
 Aphasia—damage to speech center
in left hemisphere
 Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
o Temporary brain ischemia (restriction of
blood flow)
o Numbness, temporary paralysis, impaired
speech
Spinal Cord
 Extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to
the first or second lumbar vertebra
 Cauda equina is a collection of spinal nerves at the
inferior end
 Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and from
the brain
 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal
cord
 Gray matter of the spinal cord and spinal roots
o Internal gray matter is mostly cell bodies
o Dorsal (posterior) horns house interneurons
 Receive information from sensory
neurons in the dorsal root; cell
bodies housed in dorsal root
ganglion
o Anterior (ventral) horns house motor
neurons of the somatic (voluntary) nervous
system
 Send information out ventral root
o Gray matter surrounds the central canal,
which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
 White matter of the spinal cord
o Composed of myelinated fiber tracts
o Three regions: dorsal, lateral, ventral
columns
o Sensory (afferent) tracts conduct impulses
toward brain
o Motor (efferent) tracts carry impulses from
brain to skeletal muscles
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 PNS consists of nerves and ganglia outside the CNS
Structure of a Nerve
 Nerves are bundles of neurons found outside the
CNS
 Endoneurium is a connective tissue sheath that
surrounds each fiber
 Perineurium wraps groups of fibers bound into a
fascicle
 Epineurium binds groups of fascicles
 Mixed nerves
o Contain both sensory and motor fibers
 Sensory (afferent) nerves
o Carry impulses toward the CNS
 Motor (efferent) nerves
o Carry impulses away from the CNS
Cranial Nerves
 12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the head and
neck
 Only the pair of vagus nerves extends to thoracic
and abdominal cavities
 Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory only
1. Optic
2. Olfactory
3. Vestibulocochlear
Cranial Nerves Mnemonic Device
 Oh – Olfactory
 Oh – Optic
 Oh – Oculomotor
 To – Trochlear
 Touch – Trigeminal
 And – Abducens
 Feel – Facial
 Very – Vestibulocochlear
 Green – Glossopharyngeal
 Vegetables – Vagus
 A – Accessory
 H – Hypoglossal
Spinal Nerves
 Spinal nerves
o 31 pairs
o Formed by the combination of the ventral
and dorsal roots of the spinal cord
o Named for the region of the spinal cord from
which they arise
 Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the spinal
cord into a dorsal ramus and a ventral ramus
o Ramus—branch of a spinal nerve; contains
both motor and sensory fibers
o Dorsal rami—serve the skin and muscles of
the posterior trunk
o Ventral rami (T1–T12) —form the intercostal
nerves that supply muscles and skin of the
ribs and trunk
o Ventral rami (except T1–T12)—form a
complex of networks (plexus) for the anterior
 Plexus—networks of nerves serving motor and
sensory needs of the limbs
 Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves in the
cervical, lumbar, and sacral regions
 Four plexuses
1. Cervical
2. Brachial
3. Lumbar
4. Sacral

Autonomic Nervous System
 Motor subdivision of the PNS
o Consists only of motor nerves
o Controls the body automatically (and is also
known as the involuntary nervous system)
o Regulates cardiac and smooth muscles and
glands
Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
Compared
 Somatic nervous system
o Motor neuron cell bodies originate inside
the CNS
o Axons extends to skeletal muscles that are
served
 Autonomic nervous system
o Chain of two motor neurons
 Preganglionic neuron is in the brain
or spinal cord
 Postganglionic neuron extends to
the organ
o Has two arms
 Sympathetic division
 Parasympathetic division
Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division
 Parasympathetic division is also known as the
craniosacral division
 Preganglionic neurons originate in:
o Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
o S2 through S4 regions of the spinal cord
 Preganglionic neurons synapse with terminal
ganglia; from there, postganglionic axons extend to
organs that are served
Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
 Sympathetic division is also known as the
thoracolumbar division
 Preganglionic neurons originate from T1 through
L2
o Axons pass through a ramus communicans
to enter a sympathetic trunk ganglion
o Sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies near the
spinal cord
 After synapsing at the ganglion, the axon may
synapse with a second neuron at the same or
different level
 Or, the preganglionic neuron may pass through the
ganglion without synapsing and form part of the
splanchnic nerves
o Splanchnic nerves travel to the collateral
ganglion
o Collateral ganglia serve the abdominal and
pelvic organs
Autonomic Functioning
 Body organs served by the autonomic nervous
system receive fibers from both divisions
o Exceptions: blood vessels, structures of the
skin, some glands, and the adrenal medulla
o These exceptions receive only sympathetic
fibers
 When body divisions serve the same organ, they
cause antagonistic effects due to different
neurotransmitters
o Parasympathetic (cholinergic) fibers release
acetylcholine
o Sympathetic postganglionic (adrenergic)
fibers release norepinephrine
o Preganglionic axons of both divisions
release acetycholine
 Sympathetic—“fight or flight” division
o Response to unusual stimulus when
emotionally or physically stressed or
threatened
o Takes over to increase activities
o Remember as the “E” division
 Exercise
 Excitement
 Emergency
 Embarrassment
 Parasympathetic—“housekeeping” activites
o “Rest-and-digest” system
o Conserves energy
o Maintains daily necessary body functions
o Remember as the “D” division
 Digestion
 Defecation
 Diuresis
Developmental Aspects of the Nervous System
 The nervous system is formed during the first month
of embryonic development
 Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful
effects
 Oxygen deprivation destroys brain cells
 The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the
brain to develop
 Severe congenital brain diseases include:
o Cerebral palsy
o Anencephaly
o Hydrocephalus
o Spina bifida
 Premature babies have trouble regulating body
temperature because the hypothalamus is one of the
last brain areas to mature prenatally
 Development of motor control indicates the
progressive myelination and maturation of a child’s
nervous system
 Brain growth ends in young adulthood. Neurons die
throughout life and are not replaced; thus, brain
mass declines with age
 Orthostatic hypotension is low blood pressure due to
changes in body position
 Healthy aged people maintain nearly optimal
intellectual function
 Disease—particularly cardiovascular disease—is the
major cause of declining mental function with age
o Arteriosclerosis is decreased elasticity of
blood vessels