Nervous System Cells

CNS PNS
Neurons Glia Cells
-encased by the -found outside
bones of the these bones -Do not go through -Supporting cells
skill and spinal and consists of the process of
column the nerves and
mitosis
most of the
sensory organs What do they have in common?

* Larger cells can be found within the CNS and PNS -Both cells have the same structure/organelles (golgi, Er, etc.)
*The human brain contains approximately 100
billion individual neurons -Synaptic pruning: as we age we begin to lose neurons

Santiago Ramon y Cajal - Father of Neuroscience

In the later 1800’s, he was the first to demonstrate that the

individual cells comprising of the nervous system remained
separate.
He used the Golgi method (silver nitrate and staining neurons)
He showed that the nervous system did not merge into each
other as previously believed.

Nucleus- DNA storage

Ribosomes- cell structure that makes protein; responsible for translation

Chromatin - DNA & protein

Histones - fundamental units for chromatin; determines whether DNA is compacted or relaxed (compacted - carrier; relaxed -
more likely to have the condition)

Nucleosomes: 8 histones and 146 DNA pairs

*DNA > RNA > Protein > Behavior

*RNA has to be made into protein and that begins to have psychological conditions occur
*If DNA is compacted it cannot transcribe but if it is relaxed it can go from DNA to RNA

NcRNA - non-coding RNA

Non-coding RNA is not translated into protein.

Modification of proteins if proteins need to be modified; depends on environmental demands.
NcRNA regulates gene expression mainly through down-regulation
Aids in the production of different variants of the same protein.
example: si-RNA (small/short interfering RNA) silencing RNA
 Important Figures:
Hermann Von Helmholtz Santiago Ramon y Cajal

-Measured the speed at which the -Golgi method (uses potassium

signal is carried along a nerve fiber dichromate and silver nitrate to stain
-Sensory physiology neurons)

William Wundt Stanley Hall Georg Elias Muller

-Opened the first -Established -Memory

formal laboratory for experimental psychology -Concept of
physiological lab at Johns Hopkins consolidation; learning
research -Did not receive PhD in doesn’t automatically
-Studied mental the US as he studied in become permanent
disorders and Germany under William memories
abnormal behavior Wundt -The memory process
-Student of Hermann requires time for neuron
Von Helmholtz events (sleep)

Phrenology is the precursor to neuroscience.

Quiz Question: The three “R’s”in animal research:

Provide a brief description which details how 1. Reduction

neurons and non-neuronal cells are similar?

2. Replacement
Both neurons and non-neuronal cells contains
a similar cell structure, organelles, chromosomes,
golgi complexes, membrane bi-lipid layers, etc. 3. Refinement
Ch 2 Figures
 Structure and Functions of Cells of the Nervous System

The Structures of an Animal Cell

Cation: positively charged
Membrane: separates the interior of the cell from Anion: negatively charged
the outside environment Enzyme: a molecule that controls a chemical reaction,
combining two substances or breaking a substance into two
Nucleus: contains the chromosomes parts
Axon hillock: only in neurons; determines if the neuron is
going to fire or not
Mitochondria: performs metabolic activities and
provides energy that cells require
-Passed on by the female
-Contains separate DNA

Ribosomes: turn mRNA into proteins within the RER

Golgi complex: packaging proteins; modify

Cytoskeleton: made up of: microfilaments,

intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
Purpose: resist tension compression, and expansion
(maintain shape)

Neurons: does not go through mitosis

Estrogen: (Only within the brain) protects the brain

from toxins and cell death Axoplasmic transport: an active process by which substances are
propelled along microtubules that run the length of the axon

Microtubules: a long strand of bundles of protein filaments

Stores adenosine triphosphate
arranged around a hollow core; part of the cytoskeleton involved
in transporting substances from place to place within the cell

Break down waste

Area postrema: A region of the medulla where the blood-brain
barrier is weak; poisons can be detected there and can initiate
vomiting

Production and modification of proteins

Blood-brain barrier: a semi-permeable barrier between the
blood and the brain produced by the cells in the walls of the
brain’s capillaries
Synthesis lipid and shortage of CA+
 Chapter 2: The Synapse

Glial Cells Motor

Sends signals to
Astrocyte Oligodendrocyte Microglia Schwann parts of the body
(e.g. muscle to
Provides direct movement)
Forms myelin Smallest; break PNS; support
nutrients to
sheaths in CNS down dead and axons and
neurons
dying neurons; produce myelin
protects brain
from invading
microorganisms
Pyramidal

Radial glia: guides the migration of neurons and the growth of their axons and dendrites during Involved in many
embryonic development; when development finishes, most radial glia differentiate into neurons and a
other areas of
smaller number differentiate into astrocytes and oligodendrocytes
cognitions such as
object recognition
within the visual
cortext

Basic Neuron Types

Multipolar Bipolar
Sensory

Transmit
signals from
the rest of
the body to
the brain

Inter

Bridge
connections
between other
neurons

Pseudo-unipolar Unipolar

Von Economo neurons: (VENs) large

spindle-shaped soma; bipolar like
neurons located in frontal cortex in great
apes and humans but not in other
primates
-allows the high-speed connections
necessary for rapid emotio nal and
intuitive judgements
-found in two areas: anterior cingulate
cortex and fronto-insular cortex
Structure of a Synapse
Sodium-Potassium transporter: a protein found in the membrane of
all cells that extrudes sodium ions from and transports potassium ions
Synapses are junctions between terminal buttons at the ends of the
into the cell
atonal branches of one neuron and the membrane of another

Synapses can occur in three places: Activation of Receptors

1. On dendrites
2. On the soma Postsynaptic receptor: a receptor molecule in the postsynaptic
3. On other axons membrane of a synapse that contains the binding site for a
neurotransmitter
Dendritic spines are small protrusions that stud the dendrites of
several types of large neurons in the brain Neurotransmitter-dependent ion channel: an ion channel that
opens when a molecule of a neurotransmitter binds with a
Synaptic vesicle: a small hollow, bead like structure found in terminal postsynaptic receptor
buttons; curtains molecules of a neurotransmitter
Depolarization: reduction (toward zero) of the membrane potential
Presynaptic membrane: the membrane of a terminal button that lies of a cell from its normal resting potential
adjacent to the postsynaptic membrane and through which the
neurotransmitters are released Hyperpolarization: an increase in the membrane potential of a cell,
relative to the normal resting potential
Postsynaptic membrane: membrane of the cell that receives the
message Molecules of the neurotransmitter produce a depolarization or
Action
Potential
Refractory
Period
hyperpolarization in the postsynaptic membrane by diffusing across
Depolarization Repolarization
the synaptic cleft and attaching to the binding sites of special protein
molecules located in the postsynaptic receptors
Threshold Potential

Resting Potential
Neurotransmitters open ion channels in at least two ways: directly and
indirectly.

Metabotropic receptors: contains a binding site for a

Connection within Synapses neurotransmitter; activates an enzyme that begins a series of events
that opens an ion channel elsewhere in the cells membrane when the
Membrane potential: the electrical charge across a cell molecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site; takes
membrane; the difference in electrical potential inside and outside longer and lasts longer
the cell; the inside of a membrane is about -70mV
Second messenger: a chemical produced when a G protein activates
Action Potential: an enzyme; carries a signal that results in the opening of the ion
Occurs when the membrane potential of an axon reaches the channel or causes other events to occur in the cell; bypasses through
threshold for excitation. the terminal and directly to the terminal and activates transcription
Only neurons and muslces have action potentials (not all neurons)
Although the action potential is electrical, it is caused by the flow of The first kinase activates metabotropic receptor which releases a
sodium and potassium ions through voltage-dependent ion second messenger which opens the channel
channels in the membrane Sometimes the second messenger doesn’t make it to the channel but
instead bypasses the channel and travels to the nucleus; activates
Resting potential: -70mV intracellular cascades or mechanism

Voltage-dependent ion channels: an ion channel that opens or

closes according to the value of the membrane potential

K+ is found predominately in intracellular fluid

Na+ and Cl- are found predominately in extracellular fluid

Saltatory conduction: takes place in myelinated axons and is faster

and far more efficient than conduction in unmyelinated axons
Structure of the Nervous System

Raphe Nuclei
-Multiple structures/nuclei
-Involved in serotonin production
 Raphe Nuclei
-Multiple structures/nuclei
-Involved in serotonin production

Locus coeruleus - transmits norepinephrine

Neurotransmitters are not found everywhere

in the brain they originate in certain areas.

Pituitary gland- releases dopamine; involved

with stress

Striatum- acetylcholine; gaba

Synthesis of acetylcholine without a
neuronal tract.
Although the striatum synthesizes ACh and
GABA they stay there
Dopamine is there but not synthesized
Movement- habitual movement; e.g.
habitual addictive repetitive movement with
a reward component
 Neurotransmitters
Norepinephrine (NE)
Acetylcholine (ACh)

The cell bodies of the most important noradrenergenic system begin

Primary neurotransmitter secreted by efferent axons of the CNS
in the locus coeruleus, a nucleus located in the dorsal pons. The
Plays a role in REM sleep
axons of these neurons project to widespread regions of the brain.
Plays a role in activating the cerebral cortex and facilitating
learning, especially perceptual learning
Serotonin (5-HT)
Acetylcholine 5-Hyrdoxytryptamine

Acetate Choline
(Acetic acid) Substance derived Serotonin plays a role in the regulation of mood, control of eating,
Anion found in
vinegar
from break down of
lipids
sleep, and arousal; and in the regulation of pain, as well as dreaming.
The precursor for serotonin is the amino acid tryptophan. An enzyme
Two drugs affect the release of acetylcholine converts tryptophan to 5-HTP. Another enzyme converts 5-HTP to 5-HT.
1. Botulinum toxin ( a bacterium that can grow in improperly The cell bodies of serotenergic neurons are found in nine clusters,
canned food) prevents release most of which are located in the raphe nuclei of the midbrain, pons,
2. Black widow venom: stimulates release and medulla. The two most important clusters are found in the dorsal
and medial raphe nuclei. Both the dorsal and medial raphe nuclei
project axons to the cerebral cortex.
The Monoamines: a class of amines that includes indolamines
such as serotonin and catecholamines such as dopamine, Amino Acids
norepinephrine and epinephrine
Some neurons secrete simple amino acids as neurotransmitters.
Dopamine (DA) Because amino acids are used for protein synthesis by all cells of the
brain, it is difficult to prove that a particular acid is a neurotransmitter.
Involved in movement, attention, learning However, investigators suspect that at least eight amino acids may
Produced both excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials serve as a neurotransmitters in the mammalian central nervous system.
The precursor for dopamine and norepinephrine is tyrosine Because glutamate and GABA are found in very simple organisms
An enzyme converts tyrosine into L-Dopa. Another enzyme many investigators believe that these neurotransmitters are the first to
converts L-Dopa into dopamine have evolved.
In dopaminergic neurons, that conversion is the last step;
however in noradrenic neurons, dopamine is converted into Glutamate
norepinephrine. Most important excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
Brings in cations into the intracellular space; works of calcium
The brain contains several systems of dopaminergic neurons. The Responsible for hallucinations/delusions
three most important originate in the midbrain. Only one to give false sensory information
Can affect seizures
Origin (location Location of Behavioral Effects
Name
of cell bodies) Terminal Buttons
GABA
Nigrostriatal Substantia Neostriatum Control of movement Gamma-aminobutryicacid
system nigra

Nucleus Reinforcement, effects of Exocytosis: refers to the excretion of the neurotransmitter from the
Mesolimbic Ventral
system tegmental area accumbens and addictive drugs presynaptic terminal into the synaptic cleft
amygdala
1. Docking- docked vesicles lie close to plasma
Mesocortical Ventral Prefrontal cortex Short-term memories,
membrane
system tegmental area planning, strategies for 2. Priming- primed vesicles can be induced to fuse with
problem solving
the plasma membrane by sustained depolarization
3. Fusion- vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane to
Several drugs inhibit the reuptake of dopamine, thus serving release neurotransmitters
as potent dopamine agonists. The best known of these drugs In order for the vesicles to dock and to be primed for release, ATP is
are amphetamine, cocaine, and methylphenidate. necessary. Thus mitochondria are present at the terminal.

The production of the catecholamines is regulated by an

enzyme called monoamine oxidase (MAO). This enzyme is
found within monoaminergic terminal buttons, where it
destroys excessive amounts of neurotransmitter. MAO is also
found in the blood, where it deactivates amines that are
present in foods such as chocolate and cheese; without such
deactivation these amines could cause dangerous increases in
blood pressure.
 Physiological Psychology - Exam One
Molecular Biology

Types of Neurons
Hermann von Helmholtz - signal speed Three R’s of Animal Research
Wilhelm Wundt - 1st psych lab; taught by Helmholtz 1. Reduction Multipolar
Stanley Hall - 1st US psych lab; taught by Wundt 2. Replacement -Most common
Santiago Ramon y Cajal - Father; golgi 3. Refinement -One axon; many dendrites
Charles Darwin - functionalism

Synapse Bipolar
-Usually sensory
-One axon; one dendrite
3 Na+ for 2K in

Autoreceptor - responds to the

neurotransmitter released by that neuron
Unipolar
Reuptake - reentry of a neurotransmitter; -Sensory neuron
terminating the postsynaptic potential -one axon that divides into
two branches

Pseudo-unipolar
-connect body extremities
Membrane Potential - the electrical charge across a cell
such as legs and arms to
membrane
the parietal lobe
Resting Potential - -70mV, the membrane potential of a
neuron when it is not being altered

Action Potential - brief electrical impulse that provides

the basis for conduction of information along an axon

Sodium-potassium transporter - a protein found in the

membrane of all cells that extrudes sodium ions from and Stores adenosine triphosphate
transports potassium ions into the cell

Saltatory Conduction - conduction of action potentials by

myelinated axons
Break down waste

Production and modification of proteins

Ionotropic receptor - a receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter and an ion channel
that opens when a molecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site

Metabotropic receptor - a receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter; activates an
Synthesis lipid and shortage of CA+
enzyme that begins a series of events that opens an ion channel elsewhere in the cell’s membrane when
a molecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site

Second messenger - a chemical produced when a G protein activates an enzyme; carries a signal that
results in the opening of the ion channel or causes other events to occur in the cell

G protein - a protein coupled to a metabotropic receptor; conveys messengers to other molecules when
a ligand binds with and activates the receptor

Ligand - a chemical that binds with with the binding site of a receptor

Axon hillock - specialized neuronal organelle found on the plasma membrane of neurons between the
soma and axon, which generates electrical impulses via the influx of cations

Neuronal and non-neuronal cells ares isimilar as they both contain a similar cell structure, organelles,
chromosomes, golgi complexes, membrane bi-lipid layers, etc.

Blood-brain barrier - multiple places; structure of each red blood cell; doesn’t allow stuff to come in

SiRNA- protein deletion and/or modification

 Physiological Psychology - Exam One
Molecular Biology
Meninges: the three layers of tissue that
The ventricles of the brain are a communicating network
encase the brain
filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
Cerebrospinal fluid: clear watery liquid that produces
cushioning for the brain while helping circulate nutrients and
remove waste
Cerebral aqueduct: a long tube that connects the third
ventricle to the fourth ventricle
Choroid plexus: blood vessels found in the pia mater; contained within the four ventricles;
produces more than two thirds of CSF
Foremen of monro: part of the ventricular system and the connection between the third
and fourth ventricle
Dura mater: outside layer; thick, tough, and
flexible but unstretchable
Arachnoid membrane: middle layer; soft and
spongy FISSURE Longitudinal fissure: long crevice White matter: consists mainly of
Pia mater: clings to the surface of the brain; that divides the cerebral cortex nerve fibers and myelin gives it
thin and delicate into two hemispheres the white color

GYRUS
Corpus callosum: large bundle of Grey matter: mainly nerve cell
axons that connects the bodies and branching dendrites
Sulcus hemispheres

The Structures of the Brainstem

Cerebral cortex: layer of cells on the

outer surface of the brain
Frontal lobe:
Cerebral hemispheres: composed of the
home of the primary motor cortex
home of the prefrontal cortex which is cerebral cortex; the part of the brain that
involved with planning of behavior, makes us more “evolved”
attention, and judgement
Medulla: manages heart rate and blood
pressure
Parietal lobe:
home of the primary somatosensory cortex
Pons: management of sleep, arousal, and
which helps us localize tough, pain, skin
facial expressions; mastication
temp, and body position
processes input about taste
engages in some complex processing of vision Cerebellum: maintaining balance and
motor coordination; learned motor
behaviors
Occipital lobe:
located at the back of the brain
Thalamus: sensory information, states of Locus coeruleus: transmits norepinephrine
home to the primary visual cortex
arousal; learning and memory; major
relay station Pituitary gland: releases s dopamine; involved
Temporal lobe:
with stress
home to the primary auditory complex, which
Amygdala: identifying, remembering,
allows us to process in incoming sounds
process some higher visual system and responding to fear and aggression Striatum: acetylcholine; gaba; synthesis of
*anxiety-based disorders are often acetylcholine without a neuronal tract
associated with dysfunctions of the
Broca’s area: Wernicke’s area: amygdala Raphe nuclei: multiple structures/nuclei;
one of the main Important in involved in serotonin production
areas for producing language Hippocampus: essential for formation of
language comprehension long-term memory; memories are
“created” here and sent somewhere else
 Physiological Psychology - Exam One
Molecular Biology

Excitatory Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters: chemical substance; causes

transfer of impulse to another nerve fiber

ACh Acetylcholine Learning, memory, movement (PNS) Properties:

-synthesized in presynaptic neuron
-localized to vesicles in presynaptic neuron rapidly
DA Dopamine Reward, pleasure, learning behavior,
removed from synaptic cleft by uptake or
movement (CNS)
degradation
NE -presence or receptor on the posy-synaptic
Norepinephrine Attention, stress, movement
neuron
-binding to the receptor elicits a biological
EPI Epinephrine Fight-or-flight response, arousal response

GLU Glutamate Cognition, memory and learning; The major sequence of events that allows
excitotoxicity refers to the ability communication between neurons across the synapse
of glutamate to destroy neurons are as follows:

5-HT Serotonin Mood (depression and anxiety); 1. The neuron synthesizes chemical that serve
aggression, sleep, sex drive, and neurotransmitters
digestive health 2. Neurons store neurotransmitters in axon
terminals or transport them there
3. An action potential triggers the release of
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
4. The neurotransmitters travel across the cleft and
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
attach to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron
5. The neurotransmitters separate from the
receptors
GABA Gamma- 6. The neurotransmitters are taken back into the
Induces relaxation and also reduces
aminobutryic presynaptic neuron (reuptake), diffuse away, or are
anxiety; stimulates Human Growth
acid inactivated by chemicals
Hormone
7. The postsynaptic cell may send negative
feedback to slow the release of further
Glycine The body uses glycine to make neurotransmitters
proteins, there is interest in trying it
for schizophrenia and improving
memory, movement, vision, and
audition
RESEARCH, THEORY, AND SCIENCE
-Relies on empirical data
-Relies on scientific methods
-Scientific and ethical rules for conducting research
METHODS OF RESEARCH
Correlational Method
-Non-experimental
-Looking at relation between two variables (x on y)
-Correlation does not imply causation
Experimental Method
-Allows us to conclude causation
-Uses general experimental method
-hypothesis to test
-uses independent and dependent variables
-experimental manipulates IV and measures DV
Independent variable - what the experimenter manipulates or
changes
Types of groups of IV
-Experimental group (gets the treatment)
-Control group (does not get the treatment)
-Placebo group (“thinks” they got the treatment)
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
We form associations between pairs of stimuli that
occur sequentially in time
This is the simplest form of associative learning
because the subject does very little
AKA Pavlovian conditioning
A conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) which automatically
results in an unconditioned response (UCR)
After several pairings, response can be elicited by the
CS without the CS which is called the conditioned
response (CR)
OPERANT CONDITIONING
A type of learning in which associations are formed
between behaviors and their outcomes
AKA “instrumental conditioning”
In this type of associative learning, we must perform
an action that will result in a desired outcome
Responses are followed by reinforcement or
punishment that will either weaken or strengthen the
behavior
THE SKINNER BOX
A specially adapted cage which allows researchers to
investigate the results of reinforcement and punishment on
the likelihood that an animal will press a lever
Operant conditioning differs from classical condition
Classical conditioning is based on an association or
correlation between two stimuli; operant conditioning occurs
when an action behavior is associated with its consequence
The Morris water maze and the 8 radial arm maze both test
spatial memory recognition.
Stereotactic device: allows precise positioning of electrode or
other device
Golgi stain method: randomly stains about 5% of neurons in slice
Myelin stains: stain taken up by fatty myelin that insulates axon;
stain helps identify neural pathways
Nissl stained neurons: stain taken up by neurons; identify cell
bodies of neurons
Light and Electron Microscopy
-Scanning electron microscope
-Beam of electrons causes specimen to emit electrons itself
Electroencephalography
-Recorded from two electrodes on scalp over area of interest
-Electronic amplifier detects combined electrical activity of all
neurons between these two neurons
-Can graph activity
-Terrific temporal resolution: 1 millisecond recording
-Spatial resolution is poor
Different functions of each EEG wave
Beta waves- indicates a person is awake, thinking, and alert;
activity here means that the cerebral cortex is processing large
amounts of data retrieval
Alpha waves- indicate a person is aware but also relaxed,
no-task, no-stimulus, no-response
Gamma waves- indicate high visual processing, important
for learning new material, memory formation and information
processing
STUDYING HERITABILITY AND GENETICS METHODS FOR DETECTING PROTEINS

Family studies:
Western Blot
-Determine how strongly a characteristic is shared across
Laboratory procedure that allows you to:
family members
1. Verify the expression of a protein
-Quantify
2. Determine the relative amount of a protein present
-Correlate degree of heritability
in different samples
Adoption studies:
3. Analyze protein-protein interactions
-Compare adopted and biological children
Drawbacks:
-Compare behavior in adoptive vs biological family
1. Many steps where errors can occur
Twin studies:
2. Large amount of sample needed (5 -50ug)
-Identical vs fraternal twins
3. Accurate quantitation is very difficult
4. Time consuming protocol

GENETIC ENGINEERING
Manipulation of an organism’s genes or their functioning
Knockout technique: non-functioning mutation is introduced
into isolated gene
-Altered gene is transferred into embryo
Antisense RNA procedure: blocks participation of messenger
RNA in protein construction
POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR)
Amplification of specific gene or gene fragments
Immunofluorescence Microscopy
(IF) is a particularly robust and broadly applicable method
generally used by researchers to assess both the
localization and endogenous expression levels of proteins
The fluorescence-activated cell sorter is a machine that
can rapidly separate cells in a suspension on the basis of
size and the color of their fluorescence
ELISA - Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
Enzymelinked immunosorbent assay, also known as an
enzyme immunoassay (EIA), is a biochemical technique
used mainly in immunology to detect the presence of an
antibody and antigen (protein)

Process of PCR: Optogenetics is a biological technique that involves the

1. Desaturation use of light to control neurons that have been genetically
2. Annealing modified to express light-sensitive ion channels.
3. Extension Photosensitive proteins have evolved in many
Traditional way to assay the result of PCR: organisms- even single-called organisms such as algae
Agarose gel electrophoresis and subsequent staining with and bacteria. Researchers have discovered that when
ethidium bromide blue light strikes one of these proteins, the channel
Drawback - too much time opens and the rush of positively charged sodium and
calcium ions depolarizes the membrane, causing
excitation.
SYBR GREEN I
When yellow light strikes a second photosensitive
-An assymmentric cyanine dye protein, a transporter moves chloride into the cell
-Non-specific assay causing inhibition.
-dsDNA-specific dye
-Bind sequence independently to the minor groove of dsDNA
-Binding affinity is more than 100 times higher than that of ethidium Ho: Null hypothesis
M1 does not equal M2
bromide Do we have null hypothesis or
alternative hypothesis?

Can be used for qRT-PCR Stereotacxic

Ontogenetic
Which opens chloride channels?
Which opens potassium/sodium channels?
 Visual Figures

Layers of retina
Optic nerve Optic tract
Conjuctiva

Optic chiasm Hypothalamus

Cornea Vitreous humor
Lateral
geniculate Pretectum:
Iris
nucleus reflex control of Optic nerve
pupil and lens

Optic radiation
Superior colliculus:
orienting the Lens
Striate cortex movements of head
and eyes

Blood vessels

Pupil

Sclera
The brain performs two major functions:
Layers of retina

controls the movement of the muscles Conjuctiva

regulates the body’s internal environment Cornea Vitreous humor

Iris
To perform these tasks, the brain must be informed about Optic nerve

what is happening both in the external environment and…

Lens

Sensory receptor: a specialized neuron that detects a

particular category of physical events
Blood vessels

Sensory transduction: the process by which sensory stimuli Pupil

are transduced into slow, graded receptor potentials

Sclera

Receptor potential: a slow graded electrical potential

produced by a receptor cell in response to physical stimuli
The iris is the pigmented portion of they eye; the muscle
The receptors acts as biological transducers, converting
that adjusts the size of the pupil
physical energy into neural activity
The pupil is the opening through which light waves
The occipital has different sections (primary, secondary, and
enter the eye. The size of the pupil changes depending
tertiary)
on the brightness of the environment

The cornea is the outermost layer of the eye; thin, clear

membrane that bends light waves inward

The lens focuses the incoming light so that it falls onto

the retina

The retina contains the visual receptors, which convert

light wave energy into neural signals

The fovea is the exact center of the retina; contains

Light travels in waves with two important properties
receptors that are specialized for fine detail and color
vision
1. Wavelength - perceived as color
2. Amplitude - perceived as brightness
Rods are for viewing dim light
Cones are for bright light; color

The human eye contains about 120 million rods and

about 6 million cones.

Cones function best under bright light and provide the

ability to see sharp images and color

Cones and rods are found in the retina.

 Optic nerve Optic tract

Optic chiasm Hypothalamus

Lateral
geniculate Pretectum:
nucleus reflex control of
pupil and lens

Optic radiation
Superior colliculus:
orienting the
Striate cortex movements of head
and eyes

The photoreceptors form synapses with bipolar cells, neurons whose two arms connect the shallowest and deepest layers of
the retina.

Bipolar cell - a bipolar neuron locate in the middle layer of the retina that conveys information from the photoreceptors to the
rest of the brain

Ganglion nerve - a neuron located in the retina that receives visual information from bipolar cells; its axons give rise to the
optic nerve

Ganglion cells - neurons whose axons travel through the optic nerve

Cones and Rods Bipolar neuron Ganglion Thalamus

Horizontal neurons - connects cones and rods together for further integration

Amacrine - a neuron in the retina that interconnects adjacent ganglion cells and the inner processes of the bipolar cell

The amacrine and horizontal neurons are responsible fo further visual integration

Nerve - PNS Tract - CNS

Optic tract - in the brain Optic Chiasm - in the brain where visual goes left to right
Thalamus
The axons of the retinal ganglion cells bring information to the rest of the brain. They ascend through the optic nerves and reach the dorsal
lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus

Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) - a group of cell bodies within the lateral genicular body of the thalamus; receives inputs from the retina and
projects to the primary visual cortex; relay station for vision

Property Magnocellular layer Parvocellular layer Koniocellular layer

Color No Yes (red and green) Yes (blue)

Sensitivity to contrast High Low Low

Fine details Low High Low

Temporal resolution Fast (transient response) Slow (sustained response) Slow

Magnocellular layer - perception of forms, movement, and depth (RODS)

Parvocellular layer - perception of color and fine details (CONES)

Koniocellular layer - short wavelength “blue” cones

Other pathways:

-coordinate eye movements, control the muscles of the iris, direct our attention to movements that occur in the periphery of our visual field

Trichromatic Theory of Vision - perception of color is based on the response rates of three kinds of cones

Short wavelengths - blue

Medium wavelengths - green

Long wavelengths - red/yellow

 Audition

Amplitude - intensity (dB)

Pitch - frequency (Hz)

Ultrasounds - above the range for human hearing

Infra sounds - below the range for human hearing

Threshold of pain is 130dB.

Biology of the Ear

Outer ear: PAT (pinna, auditory canal, tympanic membrane)

Middle ear: ossicles MIS (malleus, incus, stirrups)
Inner ear: auditory nerve, oval window, cochlea, semicircular canals

The tympanic membrane moves the ossicles, whose purpose is to

transfer sound energy from the air of the outer/middle to the fluid in
inner ear.
-sound waves are weak when they move from air to water. The Central Auditory System

Cochlea - structure of inner ear that carries auditory receptors

Oval window - opening in bone surrounding cochlea; transmits sound Tracts pass to the ventral and dorsal cochlear nucleus and cross
vibrations into fluid within cochlea left to right.

Auditory nerve - nerve carrying sound information from cochlea to the Auditory information from the medial geniculate nucleus of the
brain thalamus is received by the primary auditory cortex. (Part of the
temporal lobe)

Cochlea Phase differences - refer to the simultaneous arrival, at each ear, of

different portions (phases) of the oscillating sound wave

Basilar Membrane Vestibular System

The vestibular system has two components: the vestibular sacs and
the semicircular canals.
Organ of Corti
Vestibular sac - one of set two receptor organs in each inner ear
that detect changes in the tilt of the head
Deiter cells
Semicircular canal - one of the three ring-like structures of the
vestibular apparatus that detect changes in head rotation
Hair cells
The two vestibular sacs: the utricle (little pouch) and the saccule
(little sac)

The functions of the vestibular system include balance,

Round window - permits vibrations via oval window to fluid in maintenance of the head in an upright position, and adjustment of
the cochlea eye movement to compensate for head movements.

Cilium - a hair-like appendage of a cell involved in movement Vestibular ganglion: a nodule on the vestibular nerve that contains
or in transducing sensory information; found in auditory and the cell bodies of the bipolar neurons that convey vestibular
vestibular system information to the brain

SOMATOSENSES - provide information about what
is happening on the surface of our body and inside it
Proprioception - perception of the body’s position
and posture
Kinesthesia - perception of the body’s own
movement
The three most important qualities of cutaneous
stimulation are:
1. Touch
2. Temperature
3. Pain
Sensitivity to pressure and vibration is caused by
movement of the skin, which moves the dendrites of
mechanoreceptors.
Movement causes ion channels to open, and the flow
of ions into or out of the dendrite causes a change in
the membrane potential
Tactile sensation that is transmitted by small-diameter
unmyelinated axons
Corpuscle- an unattached body cell, such as blood or
lymph cell. A rounded, globular mass of cells, such
as the pressure receptor on certain nerve endings
In your skin, you have the appearance of free
nerve endings and the four types oof
encapsulated receptors:
1. Merkel’s disks
2. Ruffini corpuscles
3. Meissner’s corpuscles
4. Pacinian corpuscles
So we have five touch receptors.
Merkel’s disk -
location - hairy and glabrous skin
function - detection of roughness, especially
by fingertips, as they are the most sensitive
The touch-sensitive end organs found at the
base of the epidermis. They are large, myelinated
nerve endings attached to several Merkel’s
receptors.
Ruffini corpuscles -
location - hairy and glabrous skin
function - detection of skin stretching and
pressure applied to the skin
A vibration- sensitive organ located in hairy
skin, a type of mechanoreceptor
Meissner’s corpuscles -
location - in the hands and feet
function - detection of edge contours,
Braille-like stimuli, especially by fingertips
The touch sensitive end organs, responsible
for sensitivity to light touch
Pacinian corpuscles -
A specialized, encapsulated somatosensory
nerve ending that detects mechanical stimuli,
especially deep pressure
Temperature
Thermal Receptors:

Cold - Myelinated

Warmth - Unmyelinated

Pain

Pain reception is accomplished by the networks of free

nerve endings.

Nociceptors (pain receptors)

1. High threshold mechanoreceptors are free nerve

endings that respond to intense pressure

2. Provides information about the presence of

chemicals that produce inflammation

Somatosensory Pathways
There are multiple entries to the spinal cord

Dorsal (top - entry for somatosensation

Vental (bottom) - motor movement

The cell bodies of the pseudo-unipolar neurons are located in

the dorsal root ganglion.

Ganglion (collection of cell bodies)

Temperature
There are two categories of thermal receptors: those that respond
to warmth and those that respond to coolness
Cold sensors in the skin are located just beneath the epidermis
and warmth sensors are located just beneath the epidermis, and
warmth sensors are located more deeply in the skin.
Information from cold sensors is converted to the CNS by thinly
myelinated fibers, and informated from warm sensors by
unmyelinated fibers.
Pain
Pain reception is accomplished by the networks of free nerve
endings in the skin
There appears to be at least two types of pain receptors ( usually
referred to as nociceptors)
First, high threshold mechanoreceptors are free nerve endings
that respond to intense pressure
Another type of nociceptive fiber appears to be providing
information about the presence of chemicals that produce
inflammation.
The Somatosensory Pathways
Somatosensory axons from the skin, muscles, or internal organs
enter the central nervous system via spinal nerves
Recognition of objects touch requires cooperation between the
somatosensory and motor systems
The cell bodies of the pseudo-unipolar neurons are located in
the dorsal root ganglia
Axons that convey precisely localized information, such as fine
touch, ascend through the dorsal columns in the white matter of
the spinal cord to nuclei in the lower medulla
From there axons cross the brain cross the brain and ascend
through the medial lemniscus to the ventral posterior nuclei of
the thalamus, the relay nuclei for somatosensation.
Axons from the thalamus project to the primary somatosensory
cortex
Pain appears to have three different perceptual and
behavioral effects
First is the sensory component- the pure perception of
the intensity of a painful stimulus
The second component is the immediate emotional
consequences of pain
The third component is the long-term emotional
implications of pain
Central nucleus of amygdala is the output source:
hypothalamus, midbrain, pons, and medulla
Lateral nucleus of amygdala is the input source:
prefrontal cortex, the thalamus, and the hippocampus
Medial nucleus of amygdala receives input from the
olfactory bulb
Basal nucleus are interconnective nuclei this is an
important site of plasticity in fear conditioning but not
acquisition
Most human fears are probably acquired socially, not
through first hand experience with painful stimuli.
People can also acquire a conditioned fear response
through instruction
However, conditioned emotional response are a
common way humans develop fears for specific
stimuli
Chemical Senses
Gustation
The stimuli received by the last two senses to be
studied- gustation and olfaction- interact with their
receptors chemically
For a substance to be tasted, molecules of it must
dissolve in the saliva and stimulate the taste receptors
on the tongue
Qualities of Taste

There are only six qualities of taste: bitterness, sourness, sweetness,
saltiness, umami, and fat
Flavor, as opposed to taste, is a composite of olfaction and gustation.
Much of the flavor depends on its odor.
Most sweet-tasting foods, such as fruits and some vegetables, are safe
to eat.
Supporting cells contain enzymes that destroy odorant molecules
and thus help to prevent them from damaging the olfactory
receptor cells.
Olfactory receptor cells send a process toward the surface of the
mucosa, which divides into ten to twenty cilia that penetrate the
layer of mucus. Odorous molecules must dissolve in the mucus
and stimulate receptor molecules on the olfactory cilia.

Saltiness receptors detect the presence of sodium chloride.
Umami, a Japanese word that means “good taste” refers to the taste of
mono sodium glutamate (MSG), a substance that is often used as a
flavor enhancer in Asian cuisine
Each olfactory receptor cell sends a single axon into an olfactory
bulb.
Approximately thirty-five bundles of axons, ensheathed by glial
cells, enter the skull.

The umami receptor detects the presence of glutamate, an amino acid
found in proteins. Presumably, the umami receptor provides the ability
to taste proteins, an important nutrient.
Because of bacterial activity, many foods become acidic when they
spoil
Acidity tastes sour and causes an avoidance reaction to eating
Many plants produce poisonous alkaloids, which protect them from
being eaten by animals. Alkaloids taste bitter; thus, the bitterness
receptor undoubtedly serves to warn animals away from these
chemicals.
Anatomy of the Taste Buds and Gustatory Cells
The tongue contains approximately 10,000 taste buds
Olfactory bulb- the protrusion at the end of the olfactory tract;
receives input from the olfactory receptors
The supporting cells are called stem cells
Mitral cell - a neuron located in the olfactory bulb that receives
information from olfactory receptors
Olfactory tract axons project directly to the amygdala and to two
regions of the lambic cortex: the piriform cortex (the primary
olfactory cortex) and the entorhinal cortex.
The amygdala sends olfactory information to the hypothalamus,
the entorhinal cortex sends it to the hippocampus, and the
piriform cortex sends it to the dorsomedial nucleus of the
thalamus.

Most of these receptive organs are arranged around papillae, small

protuberances of the tongue

Taste buds consist of groups of twenty to fifty receptor cells. Cilia are
located at the end of each cell and project through the opening of the
taste bud.

Taste receptor cells form synapses with dendrites of bipolar neurons

whose axons convey gustatory information to the brain

The receptor cells have a life span of only ten days.

Olfaction

Olfaction, the second chemical sense, helps us to identify food and

avoid that has spoiled and is unfit to eat

Odors have a peculiar ability to evoke memories, often vague ones

that seem to have occurred in the distant past

Almost all odorous compounds are lipid soluble and of organic origin

Our six million olfactory receptor cells reside within two patches of
mucous membrane (the olfactory epithelium), each having an area of
about 1 square inch

The olfactory epithelium is located at the top of the nasal cavity

Olfactory epithelium: the epithelial tissue of the nasal sinus that

contains the cilia of the olfactory receptors
 Sleep and Biological Rhythms
Sleep
Sleep is a behavior; still alive; when they fall asleep they are still
themselves and just doing another activity
EEG- a test that measures and records the electrical activity of your brain
Sleep is a normal stage of consciousness characterized by reduced
awareness of external stimuli
The circadian rhythm, present in humans and most other animals
The circadian rhythm is generated by an internal clock that is
synchronized to light-dark cycles and other cues in an organisms
environment
These cues are hunger, tiredness, and socializing
Exercise and patterns are important to circadian rhythm
Poor sleep can be an indicator to psychological issues and a diagnoses
tool.
The circadian rhythm controls your sleep, waking, temperature, and
hunger.
The circadian rhythm govern how you sleep and how long you are
awake.
EEG
Measures three brain waves:
1. Beta
2. Alpha
3. Gamma
Theta activity - happens in the morning (5 - 6 am);
Beta wave resets
During sleep, your brain is as active as when you are awake. The
waves are almost indistinguishable.
Beta waves - indicate a person is awake, thinking, and alert.
Activity here means that the cerebral cortex is processing large
amounts of data retrieval
Alpha waves - indicate a person is aware but also relaxed no-
task no-stimulus, no-response
Gamma waves - indicate high visual processing, important for
learning new material, memory formation and information
processing
Alpha activity - smooth electrical activity of 8 - 12 Hz recorded
from the brain; generally associated with a state of relaxation
Beta activity - irregular electrical activity of 13 - 30 Hz recorded
from the brain; generally associated with a state of arousal
Theta activity (3.5 - 7.5 Hz), which indicates that the firing of
neurons in the neocortex is becoming more synchronized. This
stage is actually a transition between sleep and wakefulness.
Stages of Sleep
There are three different types of sleep patterns:
-Non-rapid eye movement (N-REM)
-Intermittent sleep
-Rapid-eye movement sleep (REM)
These types of sleep are differentiated by EEG recording, muscle
tone, autonomic activity and mental activity.
Each cycle is approximately 90 minutes long, containing a
twenty-to-thirty minute bout of REM sleep. Thus, an eight-hour
sleep will contain four or five period of REM sleep
Sleep alternates between periods of REM and non-REM sleep
Dreaming
Dreaming, a kind of awake state in which the dreamer is an
active mental observer or agent in the dream, is a reliable
component of the REM state
The wake-up hypothesis regards dreaming as a consequence of
REM
Non-Rem
-Breathing and heart rate are slow and regular, the blood
pressure is low
-Dreaming is rare and muscles are not paralyzed as in REM
sleep
Pontine neurons: “REM-off” neurons which are active in waking
and silent in REM and “REM-on” neurons that are active during
wakefulness
Intermediate sleep is much increased under certain psychiatric
conditions; whereas in normal persons transitions are scored at
less than 10% however, under psychiatric illness it can
comprise up to 40% of total sleep time
Sleep plays a significant role in memory
Activation-synthesis theory states that dreams are just a product
of on-going neuronal activity given that your body can not
move
Narcolepsy - a sleep disorder characterized by the intrusion of
rapid eye movement into waking
Cataplexy - occurs when the muscle paralysis normally
associated with REM sleep initiates during wakefulness
Both of these sleep disorders are initiated by disruptions in the
nervous system
Sleep apnea - stop breathing; can increase heart failure and also
neuronal change
Central sleep apnea - occurs when brainstem neurons
responsible for maintaining breathing fail to work
 Exam #2
Research Methods Vision
Methods of Research:
Sensory receptor: a specialized neuron that detects a particular
Correlational - looks at relations between two variables category of physical events

Experimental - allows us to conclude causation
Conditioning:
Classical conditioning -Forms associations between pairs of stimuli
A conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned
stimulus which automatically results in an
unconditioned response.
After several pairings, response can be elicited by the
conditioned stimulus without the CS is called the
conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning - a type of learning where associations are
formed between their behaviors and their outcomes
Sensory transduction: the process by which sensory stimuli are
transduced into slow, graded receptor potentials
Receptor potential: a slow graded electrical potential produced by
a receptor cell in response to physical stimuli
Light travels in waves with two important properties:
1. Wavelength - color
2. Amplitude - brightness
Iris - pigmented portion
Pupil - opening where light enters; size dependent on brightness

Cornea - outermost layer

Research Testing:
Lens - focuses light
The Morris water maze and 8 radial arm maze both test spatial
memory recognition. Retina - contains visual receptors

Stereotactic device: allows precise positioning of electrode or
other device
Golgi stain method: randomly stains 5% of neurons in slice
Myelin stains: stain taken up by fatty myelin; helps identify neural
pathways
Nissl stained: identify cell bodies of neurons
Fovea - contains receptors specialized for fine detail and color
Rods - viewing dim light
Cones - bright light; color
Bipolar cell - a bipolar neuron located in the middle layer of the
retina that conveys information from photoreceptors to the rest of
the brain

Electroencephalography: electronic amplifier detects combined Ganglion nerve - a neuron located in the retina that receives visual
electrical activity of all neurons between these two neurons information from bipolar cells

Beta waves - awake, thinking, and alert

Cones/Rods —-> Bipolar neuron —-> Ganglion —-> Thalamus
Alpha waves - aware but relaxed
Horizontal neurons: connects cones and rods for further integration
Gamma waves - indicate high visual processing
Amacrine: a neuron in the retina that interconnects adjacent
Theta activity - returns beta, alpha, and gamma to the baseline in ganglion cells and the inner process of the bipolar cell
the morning

Optogenetics will either activate or deactive the neurons Lateral Geniculate Nucleus:

Channelrhodopsin will activate the neuron Parvocellular layer: cones

Halorhodopsin will deactivate the neuron Magnocellular layer: rods

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique to amplify a Koniocellular layer: short wavelength
single gene or gene fragments to identify their expression of a
single gene.
Trichromatic Theory of Vision:
Both Western Blot and ELISA are techniques used to measure
protein expression. Short - blue

The scanning electron microscope produces a 3D image. Medium - green

Fluorescent cell sorting is a machine that can rapidly separate the Long - red/yellow
cells in a suspension on the basis of side and the color of their
fluorescenc.
 Alzheimer’s Parkinson’s

Description Description
A chronic and progressive movement disorder
An irreversible progressive brain disease that slowly destroys memory and
95% of sporadic
thinking skills
Caused by a degeneration of the nigrostriatal
For most people with AD, symptoms first appear after sixty
system

Diagnosis

Unregulated amyloid beta protein and tau protein that creates an Diagnosis
accumulation and clumping of the proteins

Amyloid-beta protein-42 - produces widespread atrophy of the The gene located on chromosome 4 produces a protein
cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and other areas known as alpha-synuclein
Tau protein - part of the intracellular support system of neurons

Loss and difference in smell can be an early diagnosis

Confobulation: making things up and doesn’t know it

Potential Treatment(s)

Potential Treatment(s)
The standard treatment for Parkinson’s is L-DOPA,
Acetylcholine agonists which caused the patients remaining dopaminergic
Antioxidants and folic acid neurons to produce and secrete more dopamine
Anti-inflammatory drugs
Substances that prevent beta-amyloid plaques Stereotaxic procedures designed to alleviate
Cholesterol-lowering drugs (statins) Parkinson’s symptoms
Nerve growth factor to keep neurons healthy
Transplantation of fetal tissues in an attempt to
reestablish the secretion of dopamine

Additional Notes Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the subthalamic

nucleus is as effective as brain lesions in suppressing
tremors and has few adverse side effects

Two main types: early onset and late onset

Early onset is rare and usually affects people aged thirty to sixty and runs in
families. Researchers have identified mutations in three genes that cause early
onset.
Late onset is more common and usually affects people over age sixty-five.
Additional Notes

Beta-Amyloid Plaques Lewy-bodies - many nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons

Amyloid precursor protein (APP) is the pressure to amyloid plaques
1. APP sticks to the neuron membrane
2. Enzymes cut the APP into fragments of protein, including beta-amyloid Research suggests that Parkinson’s may be caused by toxins
3. Beta-amyloid fragments come together in clumps to form plaques present in the environment for example, insecticides

In AD, many of these clumps form disrupting the work of the neurons. This affects
the hippocampus and other areas of the cerebral cortex. Parkinson’s dementia is characterized by a decrease in affect

Neurofibrillary tangles: twisted fibers that build up inside the nerve cell
Huntington’s Disease:
-inherited disorder that causes the degeneration of the
basal ganglia
-characterized by progressively more severe
uncontrollable jerking movements, writhing movements,
dementia, and finally death
-progressive disease that includes cognitive and
emotional changes
-affects striatum
From a physiological standpoint, the difference b/w
Huntington’s and Alzheimer’s is:
Huntington is more jerky and sporadic
Alzheimer’s is more rhythmic
The symptoms usually begin in the person’s thirties and
forties but can sometimes begin in the early twenties
-Tetrabenazine to treat Huntington’s chorea
-other antipsychotic drugs may alleviate chore if
movements
Huntington’s- too much movement
Parkinson’s- can’t initiate movement
Different types of Dementia
-Huntington’s dementia is cognitive impairment in
procedural learning, violent outburst, aggression
Alzheimer’s dementia is a general term for loss of memory
in constructs/concepts tat interfere with daily life;
confobulation
Parkinson’s dementia is a decline in thinking speed, lack of
motivation, look like depression, but it is not

Damage to GABA neurons removes some inhibitory

control exerted on the premotor and supplementary
motor areas of the frontal cortex
Loss of this control leads to involuntary movements

Basal Ganglia Deficits

-biological causes indicate neural degeneration in the

putamen, in a specific group of inhibitory neurons-
GABAergic neurons
-hereditary disorder caused by a dominant gene on
chromosome 4 that makes a protein called
huntingtin(htt)
-abnormal htt becomes misfiled and forms aggregations
that accumulate in the nucleus

Substantia nigra- dopamine producing neurons

Substantia nigra is sending dopamine but the GABA isn’t

there - over inhibition of GABA which creates jerky
movements

Treatment
-no treatment
-research is using a special type of antibody to target htt
and destroy it
-RNA (siRNA) into the striatum block the transcription of
the htt genes
 Affective Disorders
Anxiety Disorders

Bipolar Disorder Panic Disorder

Obsessive-compulsive disorder
A serious mood disorder characterized by clinical periods of mania and
PTSD
depression
Phobias
Generalized anxiety disorder
Mania: mental illness marked by periods of great excitement, euphoria,
delusions, and obsessions
Depression: a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and Adrenal Glands and Stress
loss of interest Adrenal glands:
On top of kidneys
Etiology: Two parts:
Neuroanatomic deficit: Outer covering (cortex)
reduced grey matter volume in the prefrontal cortex Inner part (medulla)
bilaterally larger basal ganglia; larger putament Both parts secrete stress hormones
Treatment: These perform complementary roles in up and down regulation
Lithium

HPA Axis
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
-
Depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure (anhedonia)
Minimum period of two weeks and not due to normal bereavement Hypothalamus -
Negative Feedback
CRH
As well as four of the following symptoms:
Change in sleeping patterns Corticotropin
Anterior
Change in appetite or weight Releasing
Hormone Pituitary ACTH
Psychomotor agitation or retardation
Loss of energy, fatigue
Adrenocorticotropic
Feelings of self-blame, worthlessness, guilt Hormone
Adrenal
Cortex
Difficulty concentrating, indecisiveness
Thoughts of death or suicide

Neurological deficit: white matter hyper-intensities

White matter hyperintensities in the brain are the consequence of
cerebral small vessel disease caused by a variety of factors
including ischemia, microhemorrhages, gliosis, damage to small
blood vessel Schizophrenia

Hallucinations are unusual sensory experiences of things that

Seasonal Depression
aren’t actually present
Delusions are false beliefs that are persistent and organized
Seasonal depression, called seasonal affective disorder (SAD), is and that do not go away after receiving logical or accurate
a depression that occurs each year at the same time, usually information
starting in fall or winter and ending in spring or early summer.
About 1% of the population worldwide suffers from psychotic
Symptoms of winter SAD may include the seasonal occurrence disorder
of:
Brain abnormalities: increased size of ventricles and sulci,
Fatigue decreased hemispherical symmetry, decreased activation of
Increase in appetite
Increased need for sleep the amygdala, hippocampus, and frontal lobe
Difficulty concentration
Decreased levels of energy
Increased desire to be alone
Weight gain

Medical Treatments

SSRI’s
Benzodiazepines - enhance the effect of GABA and GABA receptor Tardive dyskenesia - tics on face, muscle movements on mouth,
Tricyclics antidepressants motor condition
Ketamine
Side effect of typical medication