The Nervous System 


Somatic nervous system = voluntary
Autonomic nervous system = involuntary

 Control center and communication network

Classification of Nerve Cells
 Directs functions of body’s organs and systems
► Neuroglia (support cells)
 Interprets external environment
► Neurons (basic functional units)
 Determines reaction to change
 Homeostasis: balanced internal environment Neuroglia : Support Cells
 Controlled by nervous and endocrine systems 1. Astrocytes
→ Abundant, star-shaped cells
→ Brace neurons
Functions of the Nervous System → Form barrier between capillaries and neurons (BBB)
 Sensory input – gathering information
→ Control the chemical environment of the brain
→ To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the
2. Microglia
body
→ Spider-like phagocytes
→ Changes = stimuli
→ Dispose of debris
 Integration
3. Ependymal cells
→ To process and interpret sensory input and decide if
→ Line cavities (ventricles) of the brain & spinal cord
action is needed
→ Circulate CSF
 Motor output
4. Oligodendrocytes
→ A response to integrated stimuli
→ Produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the CNS
→ The response activates muscles or glands
5. Satellite cells
Organization of the Nervous System → Protect neuron cell bodies in the PNS
6. Schwann cells
→ Form myelin sheath around axons or fibers in the PNS
Neurons or Nerve Cells
→ specialized cells that transmit messages

major regions of neurons:

1. Cell body – nucleus and metabolic center of the cell
2. Processes – fibers that extend from the cell body
2.1 axon: extension of cell body
2.2 dendrites: receptive areas
The Cell Body of a Neuron
1. Nissl substance – specialized rough endoplasmic reticulum
2. Neurofibrils – intermediate cytoskeleton that maintains
cell shape
3. Nucleus
4. Large nucleolus
The Processes or Extensions of a Neuron
→ Extensions outside the cell body
Structural Classification of the Nervous
1. Dendrites – conduct impulses toward the cell body
Organization of the Nervous System 2. Axons – conduct impulses away from the cell body
 Central nervous system (CNS)
Brain
Axons and Nerve Impulses
→ Axons end in axonal terminals
Spinal cord
→ Axonal terminals contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
→ Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron by
◘ Afferent peripheral system
a gap
→ Sensory neurons
Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent neurons
◘ Efferent peripheral system
Synapse – junction between nerves
→ Somatic
→ Autonomic: sympathetic and parasympathetic
Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous Nerve Fiber Coverings
1. Schwann cells – produce myelin sheaths in jelly-roll like
System fashion
 Sensory (afferent) division 2. Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath along the axon
→ Nerve fibers that carry information to the central
nervous system
Functional Classification of Neurons
1. Sensory (afferent) neurons
 Motor (efferent) division
→ carry impulses from the sensory receptors; they are
→ Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central
grouped into:
nervous system
1.1 Cutaneous sense organs
1.2 Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension
Two subdivisions:

2. Motor (efferent) neurons
→ carry impulses from the CNS
3. Interneurons (association neurons)
→ Found in neural pathways in the central nervous system
→ Connect sensory and motor neurons
Proprioception
→ also referred to as kinaesthesia, is the sense of
self-movement & body position
→ is mediated by mechanically sensitive proprioceptor
neurons distributed throughout an animal's body
→ occurs when proprioceptors, located in the periphery
throughout the body, are activated
Proprioceptors
three basic types of proprioceptors:
1. muscle spindles - embedded in skeletal muscle fibers
2. Golgi tendon organs - lie at the interface of muscles &
tendons
3. joint receptors - low-threshold receptors embedded
in joint capsules
Structural Classification of Neurons
1. Multipolar neurons – many extensions (dendrites) from
the cell body
2. Bipolar neurons – one axon and one dendrite
3. Unipolar neurons – have a short single process leaving the
cell body
Functional Properties of Neurons
 Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli
 Conductivity – ability to transmit an impulse
 The plasma membrane at rest is polarized
 Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than
outside the cell
The Resting Potential
→ Nerve cell fiber resting potential
▪ Na+ concentration higher on outside
▪ K+ concentration higher on inside
▪ Negative charge on inside
▪ Positive charge on outside
Starting a Nerve Impulse
 Depolarization – a stimulus depolarizes the neuron’s
membrane; Na+ rush inside cell
 A depolarized membrane allows sodium (Na+) to flow
inside the membrane
 The exchange of ions initiates an action potential in the
neuron
The Action Potential
 If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it is
propagated over the entire axon
 K+ ions rush out of the neuron after Na+ ions rush in,
which repolarizes the membrane (Repolarization)
 The sodium-potassium pump restores the original
configuration
 This action requires ATP
Nerve Impulse Propagation
 The impulse continues to move toward the cell body
 Impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin sheath
The Synaptic Transmission
 Impulses are able to cross the synapse to another nerve
● Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s axon
terminal
● The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors that
are stimulated by the neurotransmitter
● An action potential is started in the dendrite
 Synapse: axon terminal branches close to next dendrites
 Impulse reaches axon terminals
 Triggers neurotransmitter release into synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitters of the Nervous System
I. Amino acids
. 1. Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) - contributes
to vision & motor control, and plays a role in the
regulation of anxiety.
(MOA: mainly inhibitory)
2. Glutamate - plays a role in cognitive functions such
as memory & learning. Excessive amounts of
glutamate can cause excitotoxicity resulting in
cellular death.
(MOA: mainly excitatory)
II. Peptides
1. Endorphins - are endogenous opioid neuro-
peptides which inhibit the transmission of pain
signals & promote feelings of euphoria
(MOA: mainly inhibitory)
2. Oxytocin – both a hormone & a neurotransmitter
produced by the hypothalamus and plays a role in
social recognition, bonding, & sexual
reproduction.
(MOA: mainly excitatory)
3. substance P - acts as a neurotransmitter & a
neuromodulator; a key first responder to most
noxious/extreme stimuli, i.e., those with a potential
to compromise biological integrity. SP is thus
regarded as an immediate defense, stress, repair,
survival system; a potent vasodilator &
bronchoconstrictor
(MOA: mainly excitatory)
4. Somatostatin – also known as Growth Hormone-
Inhibiting hormone (GHIH); it is secreted by delta
cells at several locations in the GIT, namely
the pyloric antrum, the duodenum and the pancreatic
islets.
(MOA: inhibitory)
III. Monoamines
1. Epinephrine - both a hormone & a neurotransmitter
released by the adrenal system in response to stress or
crisis.
(MOA: mainly excitatory)
2. Norepinephrine - plays a role in alertness which is
involved in the body's fight or flight response. It
mobilizes the body & brain to take action in times of
danger or stress.
(MOA: mainly excitatory)
3. Dopamine - coordination of body movements &
plays a major role in the motivational component
of reward-motivated behavior; also involved in motor
control
(MOA: mainly inhibitory)
4. Serotonin – involved in regulation of well-being,
mood, appetite, sleep, & happiness although its actual
biological function is complex & multifaceted,
modulating cognition, reward, learning, memory, &
numerous physiological processes; 90% are located in
 the GIT
(MOA: mainly inhibitory)
5. Histamine – organic nitrogenous compound involved
in local immune responses, as well as regulating
physiological function in the GIT & acting as
a neurotransmitter for the brain, spinal cord, & uterus;
it is produced by basophils & by mast cells found in
nearby connective tissues
(MOA: inflammatory mediator; allergic reactions)
IV. Catecholamines

1. Dopamine (MOA: generally

inhibitory)
2. Epinephrine(Adrenaline) (MOA: generally
excitatory)
3. (MOA: generally
Norepinephrine(Noradrenaline) excitatory)
V. Others
1. Acetylcholine – found in the ANS both as an
internal transmitter for the SNS and as the final
product released by the parasympathetic nervous
system; it is the primary neurotransmitter of the
parasympathetic nervous systems

Two main receptors:

1. muscarinic receptors
2. nicotinic receptors
(MOA: mainly excitatory)
The Acetylcholine Receptors
1. Muscarinic Cholinergic Receptors:
→ bradycardia, vasodilation, & the effects of the Vagus
nerve

2. Nicotinic Cholinergic Receptors:

increase Na +, K+, & Ca+ permeability of the body cells