ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

LESSON 8 | NERVOUS SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Sensory Input - Uses millions of sensory receptors
to monitor changes occurring both inside and
outside the body.
2. Integration - Processes and interprets the sensory
input then decides what should be done at each
moment process called integration.
3. Motor Output - Causes a response or effect by
activating muscle glands (effectors) via motor
output.
DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
→ Deliver impulses from skin, skeletal muscles, and
joints.
VISCERAL SENSORY FIBERS
→ Impulses from visceral organs; Digestive,
reproductive, and circulatory systems.
MOTOR (Efferent) Division
→ Carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs;
muscles and glands.
→ They effect, bring out, or cause a motor response.
→ Has 2 Subdivisions (Somatic and Autonomic)

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) → Allows conscious or voluntary control of our
skeletal muscles.
→ Consists of the brain and spinal cord → “Voluntary nervous system”
→ Occupy the dorsal body cavity.
→ Act as the integrating and command centers of the
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
nervous system.
→ Regulates autonomic events; Involuntary.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUSE SYSTEM (PNS)
→ Activities of Smooth and Cardiac muscles.
→ “Involuntary nervous system”
→ Includes all the parts of the nervous system outside
the CNS.
→ These nerves serve as communication lines; they SYMPATHETIC
link all parts of the body by carrying impulses from → (Stimulators)
the sensory receptors. → Best known for its role in responding to dangerous
and stressful situations.
→ Activates to speed up our heart rate; deliver more
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
blood to areas of your body that need more
2 Principal Subdivisions of the PNS
oxygen or other responses.
SENSORY (Afferent) Division
PARASYMPATHETIC
→ Consists of nerves; composed of many individual
→ (Inhibitors)
nerve fibers.
→ A network of nerves that relaxes your body after
→ Convey impulses to the CNS.
periods of stress or danger.
→ This division keeps the CNS constantly informed of
→ Helps run life-sustaining processes; like digestion-
events both inside and outside the body.
during times when you feel safe and relaxed.
→
SOMATIC SENSORY FIBERS
→ Soma=Body; Afferent

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Adriel Vamos | BSN 1-F
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LESSON 8 | NERVOUS SYSTEM

NERVOUS TISSUE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS SUPPORTING CELLS IN THE PNS

NEUROGLIAL CELLS (Glial Cells) SCHWANN CELLS

→ Supporting cells attached to the neuron that
performs specific functions.
→ Provides physical and chemical support to the
neurons and maintain their environment.
→ “glue” of the nervous system.
ASTROCYTES
→ Star-shaped cell.
→ Make up most cells in the CNS.
→ Brace and Anchor neurons to blood capillaries
→ Helps control the chemical environment in the
brain by “mopping up” leaked potassium ions.
→ Perform metabolic, structural, homeostatic, and
neuropathic tasks.
→ Form myeline sheaths around the nerve fibers.
→ Provides insulation for faster propagation of action
potential along the axons.
SATELLITE CELLS
→ Act as a protective, cushioning cells for the
peripheral neuron bodies; protects and supports.
→ Situated between the external lamina and
sarcolemma.
NEURONS (Nerve cells)

MICROGLIA CELL BODY

→ Spider-like phagocytes → “Soma”
→ Monitor the health of nearby neurons. → Metabolic center of the neuron; core section.
→ Primary immune defense of the CNS. → Contains genetic information and maintain
→ Dispose of debris such as dead brain cells and neuron’s structure.
bacteria. PROCESSES
AXONS
EPENDYMAL CELS → Generate nerve impulses.
→ Lines the central cavities of the brain and spinal → Portion of the neuron that carries impulses AWAY
cord. from the cell body.
→ The beating of their Cilia helps to circulate the CSF → Axon Hillock – A specialized part of the soma
(cerebrospinal fluid). that connects to the axon.
→ Cushions the Neurons. → Axon Terminals - (Synaptic boutons) located
→ Multinucleated cells at the terminal ends of Axons.
→ Synaptic Cleft - A tiny gap that separates the
OLIGODENDTOCYTES axon terminal from the next neuron.
→ Synapse - (syn; clasp/join) a functional
→ Located in the Central Nervous System.
→ Wraps their flat extensions (processes) tightly junction between nerves; an impulse that is
around the nerve fibers. transmitted from one neuron to another.
DENDRITES
→ Producing fatty insulating coverings called myelin
sheaths. → Finger-like cells present on the end of a neuron.
→ Insulator material: Myeline → Receives the data from another neuron.
→ Collects incoming information from axon
Schwann Cells – Located in the PNS
terminals.

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LESSON 8 | NERVOUS SYSTEM

MYELINE SHEATH → Cover very complex receptors of the special

→ Protects and insulates the fibers and increase the senses. (Vision, Hearing, Taste, Smell, Balance).
transmission rate of nerve impulses. Cutaneous Sense Organ
Oligodendrocytes: Covers the nerves of the CNS. → Simpler types of receptors in the skin.
Schwann cells: Covers the nerves of the PNS. Pain receptors
→ (bare nerve endings) least specialized and most
Neurolemma – (Schwann’s sheath) numerous of the cutaneous receptors.
→ Outermost nucleated cytoplasmic layer of Proprioceptors
Schwann cells, that surrounds the axon of the → Receptors in the muscle and tendons; receptor
neuron. cells that are sensitive to a stimulus.
→ Fascial/Joints, Muscle, Inner Ear.
Nodes of Ranvier
→ Gaps or Indentions in between individual Schwann Proprioception
cells; Propagating the electrical signal to the axon. → 6th Sense
→ Sense of limb position and movement.
Nuclei - Clusters of cell bodies in the CNS MOTOR NEURONS (Efferent)
Ganglia - Collections of cell bodies in the PNS → Neurons carrying impulses from the CNS to the
Viscera and/or muscles and glands.
Tracts – bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS → Allows us to move, speak, swallow, breathe etc.
Nerves – bundles of nerve fibers in the PNS INTERNEURONS (Association)
→ They connect the motor and sensory neurons in
WHITE MATTER neutral pathways.
→ Consists of dense collections of myelinated fibers. → Their cell bodies are in the CNS.
→ Helps conduct nerve signals and protects axons.
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
GRAY MATTER → Has several processes
→ Contains mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell MULTIPOLAR
→ Most common structural type
bodies. → Neurons with2 processes; one
→ Enabling to control movement, memory, and axon and one dendrite
emotions. BIPOLAR
→ Rare in adults; found only in some
special sense organs (eyes, nose)
→ Has a single process emerging
CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS from the cell body.
UNIPOLAR → Unique; only he only small
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION branches at the end of the
SENSORY NEURONS (Afferent) Peripheral process are dendrites.
→ “To go toward.” IRRITABILITY
→ Neurons that carry impulses from sensory → Ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it to a
receptors (internal organs/skin) to the CNS. nerve impulse.
→ Dendrite endings of the Sensory neurons are CONDUCTIVITY
usually associated with specialized receptors. → Ability to transmit the impulse to another neuron.
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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LESSON 8 | NERVOUS SYSTEM

PHYSIOLOGY OF IMPULSE CONDUCTION → Three sodium ions are ejected; two potassium
REST (Polarized) ions are returned to the cell.
→ Plasma membrane at rest is inactive.
→ K+ is the major positive ion inside the cell.
→ Na+ is the major positive ion outside the cell.
→ As long as the inside of the membrane is more
negative (fewer positive ions) than the outside,
the cell remains inactive.
ACTION (Depolarization)
→ A stimulus changes the permeability of the
neuron’s membrane to sodium ions.
→ Sodium channels now open and Sodium (Na)
diffuses into the neurons.
→ The inward rush of sodium ions changes the
polarity at the site.
ACTION INITIATION AND GENERATION
→ A graded potential (localized depolarization) TRANSMISSION OF SIGNAL SYNAPSES
exists where the inside of the membrane is more 1. Action potential reaches the axon terminal ->
positive, and the outside is less positive.
Electrical charge opens calcium channels
→ If the stimulus is strong enough and sodium influx
2. Calcium, in return, causes the tiny vesicles
great enough, local depolarization activates the
containing the neurotransmitter to fuse with the
neuron to conduct an action potential (Nerve
axonal membrane.
impulse)
3. Entry of Calcium into the axon terminal causes the
PROPAGATION
pore like openings to form releasing the
→ If enough sodium enters the cell, the action
neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.
potential (nerve impulse) starts and is
4. Neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the
propagated over the entire axon.
synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the
→ All-or-none response mean the nerve impulse
membrane of the next neuron
either is propagated or is not fibers with myelin
5. If neurotransmitters are released, a graded
sheaths conduct nerve impulses more quickly.
potential will be generated. Action potential (nerve
REPOLARIZATION
impulse) will occur in the neuron beyond the
→ Potassium ions rapidly defuse out of the neuron, synapse.
repolarizing the membrane.
6. The electrical changes prompted by the
→ Involves the restoring the inside of the membrane
neurotransmitter binding are brief. The
to a negative charge and the outer surface to a
neurotransmitter is quickly removed from the
positive charge.
synapse either by reuptake or by enzymic activity.
→ Initial conditions are restored using the sodium-
ELECTROCHEMICAL – Transmission of an impulse
potassium pump.
ELECTRICAL – Transmission down neuron
→ This pump, Using ATP, restores the original
CHEMICAL – Transmission to the next neuron
configuration.

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LESSON 8 | NERVOUS SYSTEM

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM → Motor neurons form pyramidal (corticospinal)

→ The BRAIN is the largest and most complex mass of
the Nervous System; accompanied with the SPINE.
→ 4 major regions: Cerebrum, Cerebellum,
Diencephalon, and Brainstem
BRAIN
tract, which descends to the spinal cord.
→ Motor Homunculus is a spatial map.
Broca’s Area
→ Motor speech area
→ Involved in our ability to speak.
→ Usually in the left hemisphere.

CEREBRUM Cerebral White Matter

→ “Cerebral hemisphere”
→ Includes more than half of the brain mass.
→ The surface is made up of Gyri (ridges) and
Sulci (grooves).
→ Fissures (deeper grooves)
3 Main regions of the Cerebral Hemisphere
→ Superficial Cortex of gray matter.
→ White matter
→ Basal nuclei
Cerebral Cortex (Gray matter)
PRIMARY SENSORY AREA
→ Located in the parietal lobe posterior to the central
sulcus.
→ Receives impulses from the body’s sensory
receptors (except special senses)
→ Allows to recognize pain and light touch.
Sensory Homunculus – Spatial map along the
cerebral cortex where each part of the body is
processed.
Cerebral Areas involved in Special Senses
Visual Area (Occipital lobe)
Auditory Area (Temporal lobe)
Olfactory Area (Temporal lobe)
PRIMARY MOTOR AREA
→ Located anterior to the Central sulcus in the frontal
lobe.
→ Allows us to consciously move skeletal muscles.
- Composed of fiber tracts deep to the gray matter.
Corpus collosum – Connects hemispheres.
- Tracts, such as the corpus collosum are known as
commissures.
- Association of tracts connects area within a
hemisphere.
Projection fiber tracts connect the cerebrum
with lower CNS centers.
Basal Nuclei
- Islands of gray matter buried deep within the with
matter of the cerebrum.
- Regulate voluntary motor activities by magnifying
instructions sent to the skeletal muscles by the
Primary Motor Cortex
DIENCEPHALON
→ Sits on top of the Brain stem.
→ Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres.
Mode of Three (3) Structures
1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
3. Epithalamus
THALAMUS
- Encloses the third ventricle.
- Relay sensation for sensory impulses passing
upward to the cerebral cortex.
- Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex
for localization and interpretation.

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LESSON 8 | NERVOUS SYSTEM

HYPOTHALAMUS MEDULLA OBLANGATA

- Makes up the floor of the Diencephalon.
- Important autonomic nervous system center.
- Regulates body temperature.
- Regulates water balance.
- Regulates metabolism.
- Houses the Limbic center for emotions.
- Regulates nearby pituitary gland.
- Houses mamillary bodies for olfaction (smell).
- Most inferior part of the brainstem
- Merges with the spinal cord
- This is the area where the important pyramidal
tracts (motor fibers) cross over to the opposite
side.
- Regulate vital visceral activities.
- Contains center that controls heart rate, blood
pressure, breathing, swallowing, and vomiting.

EPITHALAMUS
- Forms the roof of the third ventricle.
- Houses the pineal body (endocrine gland)
- Includes the Choroid plexus; forms the
cerebrospinal fluid.
- Emotions.
RETICULAR FORMATION
- Complex network of brainstem nuclei and neurons.
- Serve as a major integration and relay center for
many vital brain systems to coordinate functions
necessary for survival.

BRAIN STEM
- Attaches to the spinal cord. CEREBELLUM
- “Little brain”
MID BRAIN
- Primarily responsible for the muscle control,
- Exerts from the Mamillary bodies to the pons
balance, and movement.
inferiorly.
- Plays a role in other cognitive of spinal nerves at
Cerebral aqueduct
the inferior end of the Vertebral canal.
- A tiny canal that travels through the midbrain.
Composed of 2 bulging fiber tracts
SPINAL CORD
1. Cerebral peduncles - (little feet of the
- Approximately 17 inches (42 cm)
cerebrum) convey ascending and descending
- Continuation of the brainstem.
impulses.
- Major reflex center
2. Corpora quadrigemina – Four rounded
Cauda equina – collection of spinal nerves at the
protrusions.
inferior end of the vertebra.
- These 2 are reflex centers involved with vision and
- Protected by Meninges.
hearing.

MENINGES
PONS
- Connective tissue membranes covering and
- “Bridge”
protecting the CNS.
- Mostly composed of fiber tracts (bundle of nerve
fibers in the CNS)
Dura matter
- Has an important nucleus involved in the control of
- Outermost layer; “tough or hard mother”
breathing.
- Double layered

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LESSON 8 | NERVOUS SYSTEM

Arachnoid matter
- Middle layer; arachnoid- “spider”
- Principal physiologic barrier to substances
transversing in and out of the CSF

Pia matter
- Innermost layer; “gentle mother”
- Clings tightly to the surface of the brain and spinal
cord.
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) – A watery “broth” with
components like blood plasma.
Choroid Plexus – Produces the cerebrospinal fluid.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

- Consists of nerves and scattered ganglia
2 DIVISIONS (Somatic and Autonomic) SPINAL NERVE AND NERVE PLEXUSES
SPINAL NERVES
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM 31 pairs of human spinal nerves
- Voluntary nervous system - Has 2 Divisions of Spinal Nerves
- Consists of the 12 pairs of Cranial nerves.
Dorsal and Ventral ramus (rami); contains both
- The Vagus exists only to the thoracic and
sensory and motor fibers.
abdominal cavities.
12 CRANIAL NERVES RAMUS (Rami)
Vision; from the eye of the retina - A branch or projection of a structure
Optic
to the brain by electrical impulses. - Provide attachment for the muscles and carry motor
Olfactory Sense of Smell and sensory information.
Oculomotor Eye movement and pupil reflex - Dorsal and Ventral Rami are branches of the spinal
Eye movement of the superior nerve that split apart after the roots combine.
Trochlear oblique muscle; rotates in different
directions. Dorsal Rami
Trigeminal Face sensation and chewing - Innervate (supply) the deep muscles of the back and
Abducens Eye movement; outwards a horizontal strip of skin for motor and sensory
Facial Face movement and taste functions.
Vestibulocochlear Hearing and balance
Throat sensation, taste, and Ventral Rami
Glossopharyngeal - Innervate (supply) the skin and muscles on the
swallowing.
Accessory Neck and Shoulder movement anterior aspect of the trunk.
Movement, sensation, and
Vagus
abdominal organs
Hypoglossal Tongue movement

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LESSON 8 | NERVOUS SYSTEM

PLEXUS - Rapid heart rate

- Network of intersecting nerves - Deep breathing
- Serves as a motor and sensory needs of the limbs. - Sweaty skin
- Dilation of pupils.
CERVICAL – Innervates the neck and shoulders.
PARASYMPATHETIC
BRACHIAL – Innervates the arm. - Rest and Digest system
- Most active when not threatened in any way.
SACRAL - Innervates the leg. - Promoting normal digestion, elimination of urine
and feces.
LUMBAR – Innervates parts of the hip, pelvis, and leg.
- Conserving body energy.
- Network of the nerves that release your body after
periods of stress or danger.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - “Housekeeping system of the body”
- The motor Subdivision of the PNS
- Controls body activities automatically.
- Involuntary nervous system
Consists of: NEUROTRANSMITTERS
- Cardiac Muscles - They produce and release.
- Smooth Muscles - Classified either Cholinergic or Adrenergic.
- Glands
CHOLINERGIC neurons
Has 2 Subdivisions - Release the Neurotransmitter (ACh) Acetylcholine
1. Sympathetic that includes;
2. Parasympathetic 1. All sympathetic and parasympathetic
preganglionic neurons.
Autonomic Functioning 2. Sympathetic postganglionic neurons that
- Regulates involuntary physiologic processes innervate most sweat glands.
including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, 3. All parasympathetic postganglionic neurons
digestion, and sexual arousal.
SYMPATHETIC ADRENERGIC neurons
- Fight or Flight system - Release Norepinephrine (NE) also known as
- Activity is evident when we are excited or find noradrenalin or dopamine.
ourselves in an emergency or threatening - NE is stored in sympathetic vesicles and released
situations. by Exocytosis- causes either excitation or inhibition
- Increases heart rate and blood pressure. of the effector cell.
- Provide the best conditions for responding to some - Bind both norepinephrine and epinephrine.
threat;
to run, to see better, to think clearly.

Signs of Sympathetic nervous system activity:

- Pounding heart

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LESSON 8 | NERVOUS SYSTEM
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Maternal and environmental factors may impair
embryonic brain development. Oxygen deprivation
destroys brain cells. Severe congenital brain
diseases include cerebral palsy, anencephaly,
hydrocephalus, and spina bifida.
2. Premature babies have trouble regulating body
temperature because the hypothalamus is one of
the last brain areas to mature prenatally.
3. Development of motor control indicates the
progressive myelination and maturation of a
child’s nervous system. Brain growth ends in young
adulthood. Neurons die throughout life and are not
replaced; thus, brain mass declines with age.
4. Healthy aged people maintain nearly optimal
intellectual function. Disease—particularly
cardiovascular disease—is the major cause of
declining mental function with age.
CLINICAL INTERESTS
Cerebral Palsy
- Neuromuscular disability where voluntary muscles
are poorly controlled and spastic because of brain
damage.
- Most common motor disability in childhood.
- Palsy – “weakness”
Anencephaly
- A Birth defect in which the cerebrum fails to
develop.
- Cannot see, hear, or process sensory information.
Spina Bifida (fork spine)
- Vertebrae form incompletely (typically in the
lumbar sacral region)
- Condition that affects the spine and usually
apparent at birth.
- A type of neural tube defect.
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Parkinson’s disease
- A brain disorder that causes unintended or
uncontrollable movement, such as shaking,
stiffness, and difficulty in balance and
coordination.
Alzheimer’s disease
- Most common type of Dementia
- Progressive disease beginning with mild memory
loss; control thought, memory, and language.
Huntington’s disease
- Inherited disorder: causes nerve cells (neurons) in
parts of the brain to gradually break down and die.
Encephalitis
- Inflammation of the active tissues of the brain
caused by infection or an autoimmune response.
Multiple Sclerosis
- A chronic disease of the Central nervous system.
- Others may lose the ability to see clearly, write,
speak, or walk.
Polio
- “Poliomyelitis
- Disabling the life-threatening disease caused by
the polio virus.
Myasthenia Gravis
- Chronic Autoimmune disorder in which antibodies
destroy the communication between nerves and
muscles, resulting in weakness of the skeletal
muscles.
Botulism
- A rare but serious condition caused by toxin that
attacks the body nerves.
Epilepsy
- A brain disorder; repeated seizures.
Adriel Vamos | BSN 1-F
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LESSON 8 | NERVOUS SYSTEM

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