The Nervous System

• Nervous system - master control and communications

system
• 3 overlapping functions:
• Sensory input
• Gathered information from sensory receptors
• Integration
• Processing & interpreting of the sensory input, and the
decision making
• Motor output
• Dictated response i.e. activating the effector organs
Sensory input

Integration

Motor output
The Nervous System

• Anatomical divisions:
• Central nervous system
• Brain and spinal cord
• Integrating and command
center
• Peripheral nervous system
• Consists of:
• Cranial nerves
• Spinal nerves
• Ganglia
• Peripheral nerves link all
regions of the body to the CNS
The Nervous System

• Functional divisions of the PNS:

• Sensory (afferent) division
• Signals picked up by sensor receptors
• Carried by nerve fibers of PNS to the CNS
• Motor (efferent) division
• Signals are carried away from the CNS
• Innervation of muscles and glands
The Nervous System – Divisions of the PNS

• Further divided according to region they serve:

• Somatic body region (skin)
• Visceral body region (visceral organs)
• Results in four main subdivisions:
• Somatic sensory
• Visceral sensory
• Somatic motor
• Visceral motor (autonomic nervous system)
 Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Brain and spinal cord Cranial nerves and spinal nerves
Integrative and control centers Communication lines between the CNS
and the rest of the body

Sensory (afferent) division Motor (efferent) division

Somatic and visceral sensory Motor nerve fibers
nerve fibers Conducts impulses from the CNS
Conducts impulses from to effectors (muscles and glands)
receptors to the CNS

Somatic nervous Autonomic nervous

Somatic sensory fiber Skin system system (ANS)
Somatic motor Visceral motor
(voluntary) (involuntary)
Conducts impulses Conducts impulses
from the CNS to from the CNS to
skeletal muscles cardiac muscles,
smooth muscles,
Visceral sensory fiber and glands
Stomach
Skeletal
muscle

Motor fiber of somatic nervous system

Sympathetic division Paraysmpathetic

Mobilizes body systems division
during activity Conserves energy
Promotes house-
keeping functions
during rest

Sympathetic motor fiber of ANS Heart

Structure
Function
Sensory (afferent)
division of PNS Parasympathetic motor fiber of ANS Bladder
Motor (efferent)
division of PNS
Central Nervous System

• Brain
• Maintains internal environment through control of autonomic nervous
system & endocrine system (homeostasis)
• Controls heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure
• Involved in innervation of the head, neck & viscera through cranial
nerves
• Performs complex functions associated with:
• Intelligence
• Consciousness
• Memory
• Sensory-motor integration
• Emotion
• Behavior
• Socialization
The Brain

• Regions of the brain:

• Brain stem
• Medulla, pons &
midbrain
• Cerebellum
• Diencephalon
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Epithalamus
• Cerebrum
The Brain

• Tissue organization in the brain:

• Gray matter - clustered neuronal cell bodies,
nonmyelinated neurons, neuroglia
• Internal gray matter surrounds hollow central canal
• Cortex – sheet of gray matter at the surface of the brain
• Cerebral cortex
• Cerebellar cortex
• Brain nuclei
• White matter – myelinated and unmyelinated axons,
neuroglia
• Axon bundles with similar destinations = tracts
Central cavity Cortex of
gray matter
Migratory
pattern of Inner gray
neurons matter

Cerebrum Outer white

matter
Cerebellum
Gray matter
Region of (brain nuclei)
cerebellum
Central
cavity
Inner gray
matter
Outer white
matter
Gray matter
Brain stem (brain nuclei)

Central
cavity
Outer white
matter
Inner gray
Spinal cord matter
The Brain

• Ventricles of the brain:

• Expansions of the central cavity
• Lined with ependymal cells & filled with
cerebrospinal fluid
• Continuous with each other
• Continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord
Ventricles of the Brain

• Lateral ventricles – located in cerebral hemispheres

• Horseshoe-shaped from bending of the cerebral hemispheres
• Third ventricle – located in diencephalon
• Connected with lateral ventricles by interventricular
foramen
• Cerebral aqueduct – connects third and fourth ventricles
• Fourth ventricle – lies in posterior part of pons and
medulla
• Continuous with central canal of the spinal cord
• Connects to the subarachniod space via medial & lateral
apertures
Ventricles of the Brain

Lateral ventricle

Anterior horn Posterior

Septum horn
pellucidum Interventricular
foramen Inferior
Inferior horn
horn Third ventricle
Median
Lateral Cerebral aqueduct aperture
aperture
Fourth ventricle
Lateral
Central canal aperture

Anterior view Lateral view

The Brain

• Brain stem
• 3 regions from caudal to rostral:
• Medulla oblongata
• Pons
• Midbrain
• General functions:
• Passageway for all tracts running between cerebrum and
spinal cord
• Attachment site for 10 of 12 cranial nerves
• Produces automatic behaviors necessary for survival
• Integrates auditory & visual reflexes
The Brain Stem

• Medulla Oblongata
• Continuous with the spinal cord at level of foramen
magnum
• Tracts connecting other regions of the brain with the
spinal cord must pass though medulla
• Pyramids – longitudinal ridges on ventral surface, contain
pyramidal tracts
• Decussation of the pyramids - cross over of fibers to
opposite side of brain
• Olive – lie lateral to pyramids, contains inferior olivary
nucleus
• Relay nuclei for sensory information traveling to
cerebellum
• Inferior cerebellar peduncles
• Fiber tracts connecting medulla to cerebellum
The Brain Stem

• Medulla Oblongata
• 4 pairs of cranial nerves attach to the medulla
• Nuclei of each located in the medulla near 4th ventricle
• Vestibulocochlear nerve VIII
• Vestibular & cochlear nuclei relay sensory input
• Glossopharyngeal nerve IX
• Nucleus ambiguus – motor nucleus
• Solitary nucleus – sensory nucleus
• Vagus nerve X
• Dorsal motor nucleus of vagus
• Solitary nucleus
• Nucleus ambiguus
• Hypoglossal nerve XII
• Hypoglossal nucleus – motor nucleus
 Thalamus
Diencephalon
Hypothalamus
Midbrain
View (a) View (c)
Pons Brainstem
Medulla
oblongata

View (b)

Optic chiasma
Diencephalon Optic nerve (II)
Thalamus
Optic tract
Hypothalamus
Mammillary body

Oculomotor nerve (III)

Trochlear nerve (IV) Crus cerebri of cerebral

peduncles (midbrain)
Trigeminal nerve (V)
Middle cerebellar Pons
peduncle
Facial nerve (VII)
Abducens nerve (VI)

Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)

Hypoglossal nerve (XII)
Pyramid
Vagus nerve (X)
Ventral root of first cervical nerve
Accessory nerve (XI)
Decussation of pyramids

Spinal cord

Ventral view
The Brain Stem

• Medulla Oblongata
• Loose cluster of brain nuclei called reticular
formation run through brain stem
• Important nuclei located in medulla include:
• Cardiac center - force/rate of heart
• Vasomotor center - regulate BP
• Medullary respiratory center - rhythm & rate of
breathing
 Dorsal
Superior
Tectum colliculus

Periaqueductal gray
matter Cerebral
aqueduct
Oculomotor nucleus (III) Reticular
formation
Medial lemniscus

Red
nucleus
Substantia
nigra

Fibers of
pyramidal tract

Ventral Crus cerebri

of cerebral
Midbrain peduncle

Solitary
Hypoglossal nucleus (XII) Fourth ventricle nucleus

Superior cerebellar Dorsal motor nucleus Vestibular

Fourth of vagus (X) Choroid
peduncle ventricle plexus nuclear
Reticular complex
Trigeminal Inferior cerebellar (VIII)
formation peduncle
main sensory
nucleus Cochlear
Lateral nuclei
Trigeminal (VIII)
motor nuclear
group
Reticular formation

nucleus

Middle Medial
cerebellar nuclear Nucleus
peduncle group ambiguus

Pontine Raphe Inferior

Trigeminal nucleus olivary
nerve (V) nuclei
nucleus
Fibers of Medial lemniscus
Medial lemniscus pyramidal tract Pyramid

Pons Medulla oblongata

The Brain Stem

• Pons
• “Bridge” between the midbrain
and medulla oblongata
• Separated from cerebellum by
4th ventricle
• Contains:
• Nuclei of CN V-VII
• Reticular formation nuclei
• Pyramidal motor tracts
• Pontine nuclei = relay nuclei
between motor cortex and
cerebellum
• Send axons to cerebellum
via middle cerebellar
peduncles
Thalamus
Diencephalon
Hypothalamus
Midbrain
View (a) View (c)
Pons Brainstem
Medulla
oblongata

View (b)

Optic tract Thalamus

Infundibulum
Superior colliculus
Pituitary gland
Inferior colliculus
Crus cerebri of cerebral Trochlear nerve (IV)
peduncles (midbrain)
Trigeminal nerve (V) Superior cerebellar peduncle
Pons Middle cerebellar peduncle
Facial nerve (VII)
Inferior cerebellar peduncle
Abducens nerve (VI)
Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)
Olive
Hypoglossal nerve (XII)

Vagus nerve (X)

Accessory nerve (XI)

Left lateral view

The Brain Stem

• Midbrain
• Lies between the diencephalon and the pons
• Cerebral aqueduct – central cavity of midbrain
• Cerebral peduncles - ventral surface
• Contain pyramidal motor tracts
• Superior cerebellar peduncles – dorsal surface
• Connect midbrain to cerebellum
Thalamus
Diencephalon
Hypothalamus
Midbrain
View (a) View (c)
Pons Brainstem
Medulla
oblongata

View (b)

Optic tract Thalamus

Infundibulum
Superior colliculus
Pituitary gland
Inferior colliculus
Crus cerebri of cerebral Trochlear nerve (IV)
peduncles (midbrain)
Trigeminal nerve (V) Superior cerebellar peduncle
Pons Middle cerebellar peduncle
Facial nerve (VII)
Inferior cerebellar peduncle
Abducens nerve (VI)
Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)
Olive
Hypoglossal nerve (XII)

Vagus nerve (X)

Accessory nerve (XI)

Left lateral view

The Midbrain

• Midbrain
• Substantia nigra
• Neuronal cell bodies contain melanin pigment
• Linked to the basal nuclei & involved in controlling
voluntary movement
• Degeneration = Parkinson’s disease
• Red nucleus
• Rich blood supply & presence of iron pigment
• Closely associated with cerebellum
• Motor function includes flexion movements of limbs
The Midbrain
The Brainstem

• Midbrain
• Periaqueductal gray matter – surrounds cerebral
aqueduct
• Nuclei contribute to autonomic behaviors:
• Initiate flight or fight in response to fear
• Mediate response to visceral pain
• Cell bodies of CN III & IV
• Corpora quadrigemina – makes up tectum, dorsal
surface
• Brain nuclei form 4 large bumps:
• Superior colliculi - visual reflex center
• Inferior colliculi - auditory reflex center
 Thalamus
Diencephalon
Hypothalamus

Midbrain
View (a) View (c)
Pons Brainstem
Medulla
oblongata

View (b)

Thalamus

Diencephalon
Midbrain
Superior
colliculus Corpora
quadrigemina
Inferior of tectum
colliculus
Pineal gland Superior cerebellar peduncle
Trochlear nerve (IV)
Pons
Middle cerebellar peduncle
Facial nerve (VII)
Floor of fourth
ventricle Medulla oblongata
Inferior cerebellar peduncle
Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)
Choroid plexus
(fourth ventricle) Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)
Vagus nerve (X)
Dorsal median sulcus
Accessory nerve (XI)

Dorsal root of
first cervical nerve

Dorsal view
The Brain

• Cerebellum
• Located dorsal to the pons and medulla
• Consists of two cerebellar hemispheres
• Connected by the vermis
• Surface folded into ridges called folia
• Separated by deep grooves called fissures
• Each hemisphere divided into 3 lobes:
• Anterior - coordinate trunk/limb movements
• Posterior – coordinate trunk/limb movements
• Flocculonodular – adjust posture to maintain
equilibrium, coordinate head/eye movements
The Cerebellum

• Regions:
• Cerebellar cortex – external gray matter
• Functions to smooth body movements
• Cerebellar white matter = Arbor vitae
• Axons carry info. to & from cortex
• Deep cerebellar nuclei – internal gray matter
• Relay instructions from cortex to other brain regions
The Cerebellum

• Cerebellar peduncles - tracts of nerve fibers that connect

cerebellum to brain stem
• Superior - efferent instructions from cerebellum to cerebral
cortex
• Middle - efferent info. from cerebral cortex and pontine
nuclei to cerebellum
• Inferior - afferent fibers from medulla (vestibular nuclei) and
spinal cord into cerebellum

• Fibers to and from the cerebellum are ipsilateral

 Anterior lobe

Cerebellar cortex

Arbor
vitae

Cerebellar
peduncles Posterior
Superior lobe
Middle
Choroid
Inferior plexus of
fourth
Medulla Flocculonodular lobe ventricle
oblongata

Illustration of parasagittal section

The Cerebellum

• Functions of cerebellum:
• Smooths and coordinates body movements
• Helps maintain posture & equilibrium
• Higher cognitive functions
• Motor memory
• Language, problem solving & task planning
• Recognize, use and predict sequences of events
The Cerebellum

• Coordinating movement:
1. The cerebellum receives information on
movement from the motor cortex of the cerebrum
2. The cerebellum compares intended movement
with body position
3. The cerebellum sends instructions back to the
cerebral cortex to continuously adjust and
fine-tune motor commands
The Brain

• Diencephalon
• Surrounded by the cerebral hemispheres
• Composed of three paired structures:
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Epithalamus
• Borders the third ventricle
• Primarily composed of gray matter
The Diencephalon and Brainstem

Figure 13.15
The Diencephalon

• Thalamus
• Main region of diencephalon
• Superolateral wall of 3rd ventricle
• Right & left parts of thalamus joined by
interthalamic adhesion
• Contains numerous nuclei that send axons to
cerebral cortex
• Relay center - “gateway”
• Information is processed and edited
• Mediates sensation, motor activity, and cortical arousal
• Involved in memory
The Diencephalon

• Hypothalamus
• Forms inferolateral walls
of 3rd ventricle
• Lies between the optic
chiasm and the posterior
border of mammillary
bodies
• Pituitary gland projects
inferiorly
• Contains multiple brain
nuclei
• Main visceral control
center
The Diencephalon - Hypothalamus

• Functions of the hypothalamus:

• Control of the autonomic nervous system
• HR, BP, digestion, sweat/salivary gland secretion
• Control of emotional responses
• Regulation of body temperature
• Regulation of hunger and thirst sensations
• Control of motivational behavior
• Regulation of sleep-wake cycles
• Control of the endocrine system
• Formation of memory
The Diencephalon

• Epithalamus
• Forms part of the “roof” of the third ventricle
• Includes choroid plexus
• Consists of a tiny group of nuclei
• Includes the pineal gland (body)
• Secretes the hormone melatonin
The Brain

• Cerebrum
• Most rostral portion of brain
• Composed of 2 cerebral hemisphere - accounts for 83% of
brain mass
• Fissures - deep grooves that separate major regions of the
brain
• Transverse fissure – separates cerebral hemispheres from
cerebellum
• Longitudinal fissure – separates R/L cerebral hemispheres
• Regions of the cerebrum:
• Cerebral cortex
• Cerebral white matter
• Deep gray matter
The Brain - Cerebrum
The Cerebrum
The Brain - Cerebrum

• Structural components of the cerebrum:

• Gyri - twisted ridges of brain tissue
• Sulci - grooves on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres
• Central sulcus – separates frontal lobe from parietal lobe
• Parieto-occipital sulcus
• Lateral sulcus – separates temporal lobe from frontal & parietal lobes
• Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into 5 lobes:
• Frontal - higher-order cognitive function, primary motor cortex
• Parietal – primary somatosensory cortex
• Temporal – primary auditory cortex, recognition (words, faces),
language comprehension
• Piriform cortex (uncus) – primary olfactory cortex
• Occipital – primary visual cortex
• Insula – gustatory cortex, vestibular cortex & visceral sensory cortex
The Cerebrum

• Cerebral cortex
• Home of the conscious mind
• Enables us to:
• Be aware of ourselves and our sensations
• Initiate and control voluntary movements
• Communicate, remember, and understand
• Approximately 40% of brain’s mass
• Brodmann areas – 47 structurally distinct areas
• Functional areas are categorized as follows:
• Sensory areas – allow conscious awareness of sensation
• Association areas – integrate diverse info. to enable
purposeful action
• Motor areas – control voluntary motor functions
Motor areas Central sulcus Sensory areas and related
association areas
Primary motor cortex
Primary somatosensory
Premotor cortex cortex
Somatic
Frontal Somatosensory sensation
eye field association cortex
Broca’s area
(outlined by dashes) Gustatory cortex
(in insula) Taste
Anterior association area
(Prefrontal cortex)
Wernicke’s area
Working memory (within the posterior
for spatial tasks association area
Executive area for outlined by dashes)
task management
Working memory for Primary visual
object-recall tasks cortex
Visual Vision
Solving complex,
multitask problems association
area

Auditory
association area
Hearing
Primary
auditory cortex
Lateral view, left cerebral hemisphere

Primary motor cortex Motor association cortex Primary sensory cortex Sensory association cortex Multimodal association cortex
The Cerebral Cortex

• Sensory areas
• Cortical areas involved in conscious awareness of
sensation
• Primary sensory cortex exists for each of the major
senses
• Make you aware of sensory stimuli
• Sensory association areas are adjacent to the primary
• Interpret the stimulus and give meaning to the sensation
• Occur in parts of the parietal, temporal, occipital and
insula lobes
 Premotor Primary Central sulcus
cortex motor cortex

Corpus Primary somatosensory

callosum cortex

Frontal eye field Parietal lobe

Somatosensory
Prefrontal
association cortex
cortex
Parieto-occipital
sulcus
Limbic association area
Cingulate gyrus
Occipital
Processes emotions lobe
related to personal
and social interactions

Visual association
Orbitofrontal area
cortex
Olfactory bulb
Primary
Olfactory tract Calcarine visual cortex
sulcus
Fornix
Temporal Primary Uncus Parahippocampal
lobe olfactory gyrus
cortex
Parasagittal view, right hemisphere

Primary motor cortex Motor association cortex Primary sensory cortex Sensory association cortex Multimodal association cortex
Sensory Areas

• Primary somatosensory cortex

• Located along the postcentral gyrus
• Involved with conscious awareness of general
somatic senses
• Touch, pressure, pain, temperature, vibration,
proprioception
• Spatial discrimination – precisely locates a stimulus
• Projection is contralateral
• Receive sensory input from the opposite side of the
body
• Sensory homunculus
 Posterior

Motor Sensory
Motor map in Anterior Sensory map in
precentral gyrus postcentral gyrus

Knee
Foot
Toes
Genitals

Lips

Jaw

Tongue Primary motor Primary somato-

cortex sensory cortex
Swallowing (precentral gyrus) (postcentral gyrus)
Sensory Association Area

• Somatosensory association area

• Located in parietal lobe
• Integrates different sensory inputs to enhance
perception of what is being felt
• Draws upon stored memories of past sensory
experiences
Visual Sensory & Association Areas

• Primary visual cortex

• Located in the occipital lobe
• Receives visual information that originates on the
retina
• Visual association area
• Surrounds visual cortex
• Further processes the visual info. by analyzing
color, form and movement
Auditory Sensory & Association Areas

• Primary auditory cortex

• Located in the temporal lobe
• Responsible for conscious awareness of sound
• Auditory association area
• Processes location and identification of sound
(where? & what?)
• Present in the center of Wernicke’s area
Sensory Areas

• Vestibular cortex
• Located in the insula
• Conscious awareness of sense of balance, position of head in space
• Gustatory cortex
• Located in the insula
• Involved in the conscious awareness of taste stimuli
• Olfactory cortex
• Located in the piriform cortex (uncus)
• Provides conscious awareness of smells
• Part of rhinencephalon which connects to limbic system
• Visceral sensory cortex
• Located on the insula
• Receives general sensory input from thoracic and abdominal
organs
Association Areas

• Multimodal Association Areas

• Posterior association area
• Integrates visual, auditory, and somatosensory association
areas
• Spatial location - “Body sense”
• Processes/recognizes the “what” and “where” of visual and auditory
stimuli
• Language comprehension – Wernicke’s area
• Prefrontal cortex (anterior association area)
• Receives/processes info. from PSA and LAA and
plans/initiates motor responses
• Performs cognitive functions
• Intellect, complex learning
• All aspects of thinking and perceiving
• Remembering and recalling information
• Limbic association areas
• Memory and emotion
Motor Areas

• Cortical areas that control motor functions:

• Premotor cortex
• Primary motor cortex
• Frontal eye field
• Broca’s area
• All located in frontal lobe
Motor Areas

• Primary motor cortex

• Controls motor functions
• Located in precentral gyrus
• Pyramidal cells - axons form pyramidal tracts

• Motor homunculus – body map of the motor cortex

• Specific neurons control specific areas of the body
• Face and hand muscles – controlled by many neurons
 Posterior

Motor Sensory
Motor map in Anterior Sensory map in
precentral gyrus postcentral gyrus

Knee
Foot
Toes
Genitals

Lips

Jaw

Tongue Primary motor Primary somato-

cortex sensory cortex
Swallowing (precentral gyrus) (postcentral gyrus)
Motor Areas

• Premotor cortex
• Located anterior to the precentral gyrus
• Controls more complex movements
• Receives processed sensory information
• Visual, auditory, and general somatic sensory
• Controls voluntary actions dependent on sensory
feedback
• Involved in the planning of movements
Motor Areas

• Frontal eye field

• Controls voluntary eye movements
• i.e. Eyes following a moving object
• Broca’s area
• Controls motor movements necessary for speaking
• Connected to posterior association area - language
comprehension
The Cerebral Cortex

• Lateralization of cortical functioning:

• Hemispheres control opposite sides of the body
• Specialized for different cognitive functions
• Left cerebral hemisphere has more control over:
• Language abilities, math, and logic
• Right cerebral hemisphere more involved with:
• Visual-spatial skills
• Reading facial expressions
• Intuition
• Emotion
• Artistic and musical skills
The Cerebrum

• Cerebral white matter

• Deep to gray matter of cortex
• Fibers are usually myelinated and bundled into
tracts
• Tracts allow for cerebral cortex communication:
• Cortex – cortex
• Cortex – brainstem
• Cortex - spinal cord
Cerebral White Matter
• Types of tracts:
• Commissures
• Composed of commissural fibers
• Allows communication between cerebral hemispheres
• Corpus callosum = the largest commissure
• Association fibers
• Connect different parts of the same hemisphere
Cerebral White Matter

• Types of tracts (continued)

• Projection fibers
• Descend from the cerebral cortex
• Ascend to the cortex from lower regions
The Cerebrum
• Deep gray matter of the cerebrum
• Basal nuclei (ganglia)
• Group of nuclei deep within the cerebral white matter
• Work with the cerebral cortex in controlling movements
• Start, stop, and regulate intensity of voluntary movements
• Basal forebrain nuclei – arousal, learning, memory & motor control
• Amygdaloid body – part of limbic system, processes fear and
stimulates appropriate response
The Brain

• Functional brain systems

• Networks of neurons functioning together
despite spanning large distances in the brain
• Limbic system
• Spread widely in the forebrain
• Reticular formation
• Spans the brain stem & diencephalon
Functional Brain Systems

• Limbic system
• Location
• Medial aspect of cerebral hemispheres &
diencephalon
• Composed of:
• Septal nuclei, cingulate gyrus, and hippocampal
formation, amygdaloid body
• Anterior thalamic nuclei, hypothalamus
• Fornix and other tracts link the limbic system
together
 Septum
pellucidum Corpus callosum

Fiber tracts connecting

limbic system structures
Diencephalic structures Fornix
of the limbic system
Anterior commissure
Anterior thalamic
nuclei (flanking
3rd ventricle)
Hypothalamus Cerebral structures of
the limbic system
Mammillary body
Cingulate gyrus
Septal nuclei
Amygdaloid body
Hippocampus
Dentate gyrus
Parahippocampal
gyrus
Olfactory
bulb
The Limbic System

• Limbic system = “emotional brain”

• Cingulate gyrus
• Mediates emotional response to stimuli (somatosensory &
visceral)
• Interprets pain as unpleasant
• Smells evoke an emotional response
• Hippocampal formation
• Encode, consolidate and retrieve memories
• Amygdaloid body
• Process fear and stimulate appropriate response
• Forms & retrieves memories of experiences related to fear
Functional Brain Systems

• Reticular formation
• Runs through the central core of brainstem &
consist of 3 columns:
• Raphe nuclei
• Medial nuclear group
• Lateral nuclear group
• Involved in arousal of the whole brain
• Three main portions:
• Motor component- helps control coarse skeletal
movements
• Visceral component- helps regulate visceral motor
functions
• Reticular activating system (RAS)
The Reticular Formation

• Reticular activating system (RAS)

• Maintains consciousness and alertness
• Functions in sleep and arousal from sleep
• Malfunctions in individuals with narcolepsy
• Filters sensory inputs
• Disregards most sensory information to prevent
sensory overload
 3 The continuous stream
of sensory stimuli keeps the
cerebrum aroused and alert.
2 RAS neurons
relay sensory stimuli
to the cerebrum
through the
thalamus.
1 Sensory tracts
synapse on reticular
activating system (RAS)
neurons in the brain stem.
Reticular activating
system (RAS)
Radiations
to cerebral
cortex
Reticular formation
nuclei in brain stem
Visual
impulses
Auditory impulses
Ascending general Descending projections from
sensory tracts reticular formation nuclei to
(touch, pain, temperature) the spinal cord:
• Control postural muscles
• Diminish muscle tone
• Influence visceral motor activity
• Modulate pain
The Brain

• Protection of the brain:

• Skull
• Meninges
• Cerebrospinal fluid
• Blood-brain barrier
Protection of the Brain

• Meninges - layers of connective tissue

• Functions:
• Cover and protect the CNS
• Enclose and protect the vessels that supply the
CNS
• Contain the cerebrospinal fluid
• Between pia and arachnoid mater – subarachnoid
space
Meninges of the Brain

• Dura mater
• Outermost, strongest layer of the meninges
• Composed of two layers:
• Periosteal layer - attached to skull bones
• Meningeal layer - true external cover
• Encloses dural sinuses
• Partitions of dura mater:
• Falx cerebri
• Tentorium cerebelli
• Falx cerebelli
Partitions of Dura Mater

Superior
sagittal sinus
Falx cerebri
Straight
sinus
Tentorium
Crista galli cerebelli
of the Falx cerebelli
ethmoid
bone

Pituitary
gland
Meninges of the Brain

• Arachnoid mater - located deep to the dura mater

• Subdural space - potential space between dura and
arachnoid mater
• Subarachnoid space - filled with CSF
• Contains blood vessels that supply the brain
• Arachnoid villi - act as valves
• Allow CSF to pass into the dural sinuses
• Pia mater
• Delicate connective tissue
• Clings tightly to the surface of the brain
Meninges of the Brain

Skin of scalp
Periosteum
Bone of skull
Periosteal Dura
Meningeal mater
Superior sagittal Arachnoid mater
sinus
Pia mater
Subdural
space Arachnoid granulation
Subarachnoid Blood vessel
space
Falx cerebri
(in longitudinal
fissure only)
Protection of the Brain

• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

• Formed in choroid plexuses in the brain
ventricles
• Choroid plexus = capillary-rich membrane &
ependymal cells found in roof of ventricles
• Functions:
• Provides a liquid cushion for the brain and spinal cord
• Helps nourish the brain - similar to blood plasma
Protection of the Brain – Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Flow of Cerebrospinal Fluid

Superior
sagittal sinus Arachnoid granulation

Choroid plexus Subarachnoid space

Arachnoid mater

Meningeal dura mater

Periosteal dura mater

1
Right lateral ventricle
Interventricular (deep to cut)
foramen
Third ventricle
3

Choroid plexus
of fourth ventricle
Cerebral aqueduct
Lateral aperture

Fourth ventricle
Median aperture 2

Central canal
of spinal cord
Protection of the Brain

• Blood-brain barrier
• Prevents most blood borne toxins from entering
the brain
• Low-permeability capillaries
• Not an absolute barrier
• Nutrients pass through – O2, ions
• Allows passage of alcohol, nicotine, and
anesthetics
Central Nervous System

• Spinal Cord
• Extends from the foramen magnum to the level of
L1 or L2 vertebra
• Runs through the vertebral canal
• Protected by bone, meninges, and CSF
• Functions:
• 31 pairs of spinal nerves attach to the cord
• Provides 2-way conduction pathway
• Major center for reflexes
The Spinal Cord

• Structural components of the spinal cord:

• Conus medullaris
• Inferior, tapering end of the spinal cord
• Filum terminale
• Long filament of connective tissue
• Attaches to the coccyx inferiorly
• Cervical and lumbar enlargements
• Region of cord in which nerves for UE and LE arise
• Cauda equina
• Collection of lumbar and sacral spinal nerve roots
The Spinal Cord
Foramen
magnum
Terminus of
medulla
oblongata
of brain
Sectioned
pedicles of
Cervical cervical
spinal vertebrae
Cervical nerves Spinal nerve
enlargement rootlets

Dorsal
median sulcus
of spinal cord
Dura and
arachnoid Cervical spinal cord
mater
Thoracic Vertebral arch
spinal nerves Spinal cord

Cut edge
Lumbar of dura
enlargement mater

Dorsal root
Conus ganglia Dorsal median
medullaris sulcus
Lumbar
Cauda Dorsal root
spinal nerves
equina

Filum
terminale Thoracic spinal cord
Sacral
spinal nerves Spinal cord

First lumbar
vertebral arch
(cut across)
Conus
medullaris
The spinal cord and its nerve roots,
with the bony vertebral arches removed. Cauda
The dura mater and arachnoid mater equina
are cut open and reflected laterally.

Filum terminale
The Spinal Cord
Spinal cord Spinal nerve C1
segment C1

• Spinal cord segments

• Indicate region of
Spinal cord
segment T1 Spinal nerve C8
Spinal nerve T1
Spinous
process T1
spinal cord from which Spinal cord
segment T5
spinal nerve emerges Spinal nerve T5

• Designated by the
spinal nerve that issues
from it Spinal cord
segment L1

Spinal nerve L1

Spinal nerve S1
The Spinal Cord

• Structure of the spinal cord:

• Two deep grooves run the length of the cord
• Ventral median fissure
• Dorsal median sulcus
• Gray matter (H-shaped) - located centrally
• White matter located peripherally
The Spinal Cord

Dorsal median sulcus

Dorsal funiculus Gray commissure

White Ventral funiculus Dorsal horn
matter Gray
Lateral funiculus Ventral horn matter
Lateral horn
Dorsal root
ganglion

Spinal nerve
Central canal
Dorsal root
(fans out into Ventral median
dorsal rootlets) fissure

Ventral root
Pia mater
(derived from several
ventral rootlets)
Arachnoid mater

Spinal dura mater

The Spinal Cord

• Spinal gray matter

• Primarily neuronal cell bodies & some
unmyelinated axons
• Regions:
• Gray commissure
• Contains central canal
• Ventral & lateral horns
• Contain cell bodies of motor neurons
• Dorsal horns
• Consist of interneurons
• Divided according to somatic and visceral regions
Spinal Gray Matter
Dorsal root
(sensory)
Dorsal horn
(interneurons)
Dorsal root
ganglion

Somatic sensory
neuron

Visceral sensory
neuron

Visceral motor
neuron

Somatic motor
Spinal Ventral horn
neuron Ventral root
nerve (motor neurons)
(motor)

Interneurons receiving input from somatic sensory neurons

Interneurons receiving input from visceral sensory neurons
Visceral motor (autonomic) neurons
Somatic motor neurons
The Spinal Cord

• Spinal white matter

• Outer region of spinal cord
• Composed of myelinated and unmyelinated
axons
• Allow communication between spinal cord & brain
• Divided into 3 funiculi on each side - ventral,
dorsal & lateral
• Three types of tracts (fibers):
• Ascending tracts - sensory
• Descending tracts - motor
• Commissural fibers - communication within
spinal cord segment
Spinal White Matter

Ascending tracts Descending tracts

Ventral white
Dorsal white column commissure Reticulospinal tracts
Fasciculus gracilis Medial
Fasciculus cuneatus Lateral

Spinocerebellar tracts Corticospinal tracts

(pyramidal tracts)
Dorsal
Lateral
Ventral
Ventral

Spinothalamic tracts
Lateral
Ventral Rubrospinal tract

Vestibulospinal tract

Tectospinal tract
The Spinal Cord

• Spinal Meninges
• Dura mater – single, outer layer
• Spinal dural sheath
• Epidural space - anesthetic injection site
• Arachnoid mater – lies deep to dura mater
• Subdural space
• Subarachnoid space
• Holds CSF and large blood vessels
• Pia mater
• Clings tightly to spinal cord
• Extends to coccyx
• Covers filum terminale
• Denticulate ligaments – lateral thickening of pia mater
• Anchor spinal cord to dura mater
Spinal Meninges

Dorsal median sulcus

Dorsal funiculus Gray commissure

White Ventral funiculus Dorsal horn
matter Gray
Lateral funiculus Ventral horn matter
Lateral horn
Dorsal root
ganglion

Spinal nerve
Central canal
Dorsal root
(fans out into Ventral median
dorsal rootlets) fissure

Ventral root
Pia mater
(derived from several
ventral rootlets)
Arachnoid mater

Spinal dura mater

Spinal Meninges

Pia mater
Epidural space
(contains fat) Arachnoid mater Spinal
Dura mater meninges
Subdural space

Subarachnoid
space
(contains CSF)
Dorsal root
ganglion
Body of
vertebra
 T12

L5
Ligamentum
flavum

Lumbar puncture
needle entering
subarachnoid
space
L4

Supra-
spinous
ligament
L5
Filum
terminale
S1
Inter- Cauda equina
vertebral Arachnoid Dura in subarachnoid
disc mater mater space