BIOLOGY AND

BEHAVIOR
Chapter 2
 In the Line of Fire
• Brandon Burns poses for a photo at the Marine Corps Recruit Depot in Parris Island, South Carolina, in
the fall of 2003. The following year, he was shot in the head by an enemy sniper in the Battle of
Fallujah.
• Doctors concluded that some parts of his brain were no longer viable. “They removed part of my skull
and dug out the injured part of my brain,” and now, Brandon says, “one third of my brain is gone.”
• What were the consequences of his injury?
A Complex Communication Network
• Nervous system
• A communication network that conveys messages throughout the body, using electrical
and chemical processes
• Consists of brain, spinal cord, and nerves
• Neurons
• These are specialized cells of the nervous system that transmit electrical and chemical
signals in the body.
• Brain consists of approximately 100 billion neurons with an estimated 100 trillion links.
From Bumps to Brain Scans (Part 1)
• Neuroscience
• Involves the study of the brain and nervous system
• Draws upon multiple disciplines, including psychology
• Biological psychology
• A subfield of psychology
• Focuses on how the brain and other biological systems influence human behavior

Why is the brain considered the “last frontier of scientific discovery”?

From Bumps to Brain Scans (Part 2)
• Franz Joseph Gall (1757−1828)
 Early “brain” scientist and
neuroanatomist
 Phrenology
• Pierre Flourens (1794−1828)
 Ablation and physiology
 Explained that areas of the brain
might have particular functions
From Bumps to Brain Scans (Part 3)
• Emerging technologies allow us to observe the
brain as it sleeps, reads, or even tells lies.
• Should brain scans be admissible in court?
• Manipulating activity of individual brain cells
• Optogenetics
Ways to Study the Living Brain
Structure
 Computerized axial tomography
(CAT)
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Function
 Electroencephalogram (EEG)
 Positron emission tomography (PET)
 Functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI)

What’s Next? MAKING CONNECTIONS

• Diffusion Spectrum Imaging (DSI)
Can You Identify the Structure of a Typical
Neuron?
• Cell body
• Dendrites
• Axon
• Terminal buds
• Nodes of Ranvier
• Myelin sheath
• Synapse
The Neuron
Holding It Together: Glial Cells
• Glial cells serve as the “glue” of the
nervous system, providing cohesion
and support for the neurons. Some
classes of glial cells are as follows:
• Microglia
• Astrocytes
• Oligodendrocytes
• Schwann cells

Describe the function of the glial

cells after Brandon’s injury.
Communication Within Neurons (Part 1)
• Processes Inside the Neuron
• The neuron is surrounded by and filled with positive and negative electrically charged
ions.
• The difference in sum of the positive and negative charges determines the overall
charge.
• Two processes direct ion flow into and out of the cell:
• Diffusion
• Electrostatic pressure
• The summation of negatives and positives produces the voltage neuron difference.
Communication Within Neurons (Part 2)
• Processes Inside the Neuron
• A selectively permeable neuron membrane allows some ions to move in and out of its
channels.
• Positive sodium ions (greater concentration outside the cell)
• Negative protein ions
• Sodium ions on the outside are attracted to the membrane due to diffusion and
electrostatic pressure; negative protein ions move from the inside because opposite
charges are attracted to each other.
Communication Within Neurons (Part 3)
Resting Potential
 It represents the electrical potential of
a neuron “at rest.”
 Negative protein ions are only on the
inside of the cell.
 Concentration of sodium ions (+)
outside the cell is much greater than
that inside.
 -70 millivolts (mV)
Action Potential
 If the neuron is stimulated by
neighboring cells, channels in its
membrane begin to open up, starting
at the dendrites.
 An influx of sodium ions changes the
voltage from -70 mV to -55 mV
(threshold potential).
 The voltage there rises rapidly,
increasing from −55 mV to +30 mV.
The Resting Potential and Action
Potential Close-Up
Communication Within Neurons (Part 4)
What Happens After This Sudden Jump in Voltage?

• Resting potential is reestablished in order to return the neuron to its “natural”

state.
• Because the ions are no longer at equilibrium, a sodium/potassium pump in the
membrane restores their original values by pumping the excess sodium ions (+)
back outside the cell and the potassium ions (+) back in.
• Refractory period
Communication Within Neurons (Part 5)
• Moving down the axon
• The action potential occurring in one
axon segment causes a voltage change
in the next, initiating an entirely new
action potential there.
• This sequential action travels along the
axon like a wave.
• What direction does the action potential
move? (HINT: from what structure to
what structure?)
Communication Within Neurons (Part 6)
• Excitatory Signals
• If enough sending neurons signal the receiving neuron to pass along the message, their
combined signal becomes excitatory and the neuron fires.
• Inhibitory Signals
• Inhibit neuron from releasing a signal through the axon
• All-or-None
• A neuron either fires or does not fire.
• The neuron conveys stimulus strength by firing more often and delivering its message to
more neurons.
Communication Within Neurons (Part 7)
• Role of the Myelin Sheath
• Protein that envelops and insulates the axon,
facilitating faster transmission of the impulse
• White matter versus gray matter
• Insulates and protects the tiny voltage changes
occurring inside the axon
• Action potentials “skip” over the segments of
myelin, hopping from one node of Ranvier to the
next, instead of traversing the entire length of the
axon.
• Not all axons are myelinated.
• How might that affect transmission of information?
Scientific American: Heading off Injury
• Repeatedly heading a soccer ball exacts a toll on an
athlete’s brain, but the cost is greater for women than
for men.
• MRIs of 98 amateur adult soccer players
• Half male, half female
• Key findings
• For women, eight of the brain’s signal carrying white matter regions
showed structural deterioration, compared with just three such
regions in men (damage increased with the number of reported
headers).
• Female athletes in the study suffered damage to an average of about
2100 cubic millimeters of brain tissue, compared with an average of
just 400 cubic millimeters in the male athletes.
• Proposed explanations
Communication Between Neurons
• Neurotransmitters
• Chemical messengers that neurons use to communicate at the synapse
• Receptor Sites
• Location where neurotransmitters attach on the receiving side of the synaptic gap
• The neurotransmitter must fit a corresponding receptor site to convey its message,
similar to a lock and key
• Reuptake
• Occurs when neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending axon terminal
Neurotransmitters and Behavior (Part 1)
• Researchers have identified approximately 100 different types of
neurotransmitters, with many more yet to be discovered.
• Neurotransmitters secreted by one neuron may influence the activity of
neighboring neurons, which can affect the regulation of mood, appetite, muscles,
organs, arousal, and a variety of other functions.
Neurotransmitters and Behavior (Part 2)
• Acetylcholine
• Relays messages from neurons to muscles, enabling movement
• Too much = spasms; too little = paralysis
• Low levels in the brain have been linked to Alzheimer’s disease
• Glutamate
• Excitatory neurotransmitter
• Plays a central role in learning and memory
• Too much = strokes; too little = symptoms of schizophrenia
Neurotransmitters and Behavior (Part 3)
• GABA
• Inhibitory neurotransmitter
• Plays a role in controlling sleep and wakefulness
• Norepinephrine
• It plays a variety of roles, one of which is to prepare the body for stress.
• In the brain, norepinephrine is involved in regulating arousal and sleep.
• High levels could lead to overarousal and hypervigilance.
Neurotransmitters and Behavior (Part 4)
• Serotonin
• It helps control appetite, aggression, and mood, and regulates sleep and breathing.
• Abnormally low activity is thought to drive depression.
• SSRIs help boost the effects of serotonin.
• Endorphins
• A group of naturally produced opioids
• Released in response to pain and block pain receptor sites
• Also released with brisk exercise
Neurotransmitters and Behavior (Part 5)
• Dopamine
• Plays a key role in attention, learning
through reinforcement, and regulating
body movements
• Implicated in the abuse of certain
substances, including cocaine and
amphetamines
• Parkinson’s disease is linked to a
deterioration of neurons that produce
dopamine.
Surprising Effects of Five
Neurotransmitters
Table 2.1, Neurotransmitters: You May Be Surprised About These FIVE, Page 52

Neurotransmitter Function Did You Know?

Muscle movement, The anti-wrinkle treatment Botox paralyzes the facial
Acetylcholine memory, arousal, muscles by preventing activity of acetylcholine, which would
attention normally enable muscle movement (Nichols, 2020).
Coordination of The same dopamine circuits involved in drug addiction may
Dopamine muscle movement, also be implicated in overeating and food addiction (Hauck
attention, pleasure et al., 2017).
Inhibits Anti-anxiety drugs, such as Valium and Xanax, work by
GABA communication enhancing the effects of GABA (Drexler et al., 2013;
between neurons Masiulis et al., 2019).
Glutamate is a close chemical relative to the savory food
Promotes additive monosodium glutamate, or MSG. Some people
Glutamate communication believe that consuming MSG causes brain damage, but
between neurons such claims are not supported by solid scientific data
(Hamzelou, 2015).
Physical exercise may boost serotonin activity in the brain,
Mood, appetite,
Serotonin leading to improved mood and decreased symptoms of
aggression, sleep
depression (Heijnen et al., 2015; Wipfli et al., 2011).
Relationships: Your Romantic Brain
• What’s Love Got to Do with…Dopamine?
• Areas of the brain where dopamine is active, including the ventral tegmental area (VTA)
and parts of the caudate nucleus, become excited when newly in-love individuals look at
pictures of their partners (Aron et al., 2005).
• Oxytocin
• Involved in the early stages of romantic love and social bonding
• Behaves as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone
 Where’s My Morning Antagonist?
• How Many of You Consumed Caffeine Today?
• What physiological effects do you experience when
ingesting caffeine?
• Caffeine Is an Adenosine Antagonist.
• When adenosine latches to receptors, it slows down
signaling which creates a drowsy feeling.
• Caffeine’s chemical structure is similar, allowing it to dock
at the same receptor sites, which prevents adenosine from
latching on.
• Benefits and Drawbacks of Caffeine
Put Your Heads Together (Part 1)
Discuss the following scenario as a group: You need to stay up late preparing for an
exam, so you head to the local coffee shop.
A) How does the caffeine in your drink affect the adenosine receptors in your
neurons?
B) How does this translate to you staying awake?
C) What are the potential problems with using this method to burn the midnight oil?
Overview of the Nervous System
• Central Nervous System
• Major component of the human
nervous system that includes the brain
and spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System
• The part of the nervous system that
connects the central nervous system to
the rest of the body
The Spinal Cord and Simple Reflexes
• Spinal Cord
• The bundle of neurons that allows communication between the brain and the peripheral
nervous system
• For Brandon, the paralysis could have impacted his entire body if the bullet pierced his
spinal cord.
• If this pathway is blocked, commands from the brain cannot reach the muscles.
Similarly, the skin and other parts of the body cannot communicate sensory information
to the brain.
 Types of Neurons
How do the brain and spinal cord, which make up the central nervous system,
communicate with the rest of the body through the peripheral nervous system?
• Sensory Neurons
• Receive information about the environment from the sensory systems and convey it to the
brain for processing
• Motor Neurons
• Carry information from CNS to produce movement; provide mechanism regulated by spinal
cord and the brain
• Interneurons
• Reside in the brain and spinal cord; act as bridges connecting sensory and motor neurons
The Reflex Arc
• Have you ever touched a hot pan?
• Sensory neurons  interneurons 
motor neurons
• The brain is not involved initially
• Reflex arc
• An automatic response to a sensory
stimulus, such as the “knee-jerk”
reaction
• Why do you think the reflex arc evolved?
In other words, how might this reflex
promote human survival over
evolutionary time?
Peripheral Nervous System
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all the neurons that are not in the
central nervous system.
• Neurons are bundled together in collections called nerves.
• Inform the CNS about the external and internal environment
• Two functional branches
• Somatic nervous system
• Autonomic nervous system
Somatic Nervous System
• The branch of the peripheral nervous system that includes sensory nerves and
motor nerves.
• Gathers information from sensory receptors
• Controls the skeletal muscles responsible for voluntary movement
• What movements are your somatic nervous system currently governing?
Autonomic Nervous System
• The branch of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary processes
within the body
• What involuntary processes are your autonomic nervous system currently governing?
• Two divisions that help us respond to and recover from stressful or crisis situations
• Sympathetic nervous system
• Parasympathetic nervous system
The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
Nervous Systems

The parasympathetic and sympathetic

systems allow us to fight if we need to,
flee when necessary, and calm down
when danger has passed.
Think Critically: Tend and Befriend
• Under stress, do men and women react
differently?
• Fight or flight: traditionally a ‘male’
response to stress
• Tend and befriend: females more
inclined to show this response
• Direct energy toward nurturing
offspring and forging social
bonds
• It is important to remember that stress
responses result from a complex
interplay of nature and nurture.
The Endocrine System
• When facing imminent danger, as Brandon did in Fallujah, his body responded
through activation of the nervous and endocrine systems.
• The communication system that uses glands to convey messages by releasing
hormones into the bloodstream
• Hormones are chemical messengers that influence mood, cognition, appetite, and many
other processes and behaviors.
• In what ways are hormones and neurotransmitters similar? In what ways are they
different?
 The Endocrine System: An Overview

• Key Structures
• Pituitary gland
• Thyroid gland
• Adrenal glands
The Girl with Half a Brain
• In the summer of 1995, Christina
Santhouse experienced her first seizure
near her left ankle.
• In time, she was experiencing seizures
every 3 to 5 minutes.
• After a diagnosis of Rasmussen’s
encephalitis, doctors suggested a
hemispherectomy, a surgery that
removes half of the brain.
• How did removing half of the brain impact
Christina’s functioning? How did the doctor
know which half of the brain to remove?
The Two Hemispheres
• Cerebrum
• The largest area of the brain
• Has two distinct hemispheres
• Corpus Callosum
• The thick band of nerve fibers connecting the
right and left cerebral hemispheres
• Allows the left and right sides of the brain to
communicate and work together to process
information
• Generally speaking, the right hemisphere
controls the left side of the body, and the left
hemisphere controls the right.
Extreme Surgeries
• Hemispherectomies are rare and often a last resort.
• Effective for eliminating seizures (success rates range from
54% to 90%).
• Split-brain operations are less extreme
• A rare procedure used to disconnect the right and left
hemispheres by cutting the corpus callosum
Studying the Split Brain
 Lateralization
• The idea that each cerebral hemisphere processes certain types of information and excels in
certain activities
• Left hemisphere excels at language, and right hemisphere excels at visual-spatial tasks.
• However, while there are clear differences in the way the hemispheres process information, they
can also process the same types of information.
• How can we use this information to understand claims that we can enhance our left brain (logic) or
right brain (creativity)?
 Roles of the Left Hemisphere
• Handedness and Language Dominance
• The left hemisphere handles language processing in
around 95% to 99% of people who are right-handed, but
only in about 70% of those who are left-handed.
• Broca’s Area
• A region of the cortex that is critical for speech production
• Wernicke’s Area
• Region of the cortex that plays a pivotal role in language
comprehension
Importantly, recent research
suggests these areas perform
additional functions and
cooperate with multiple brain
regions.
 Speak Again
• Brandon works on his pronunciation in front of a mirror
during a speech therapy session at the Memphis VA
hospital.
• You can see the extent of his injury on the left side of his
head.
• Upon awaking from his coma, Brandon could not
articulate a single word. Today, he can hold his own in
complex conversations.
Roles of the Right Hemisphere
• The right hemisphere is more proficient in
• identifying mirror images and spatial relationships
• mentally rotating images
• recognizing faces
• processing emotions
• directing attention
• Prosopagnosia
• “Face blindness”
• Abnormalities in the right fusiform gyrus
 Christina Wakes Up
• When wheeled out of surgery, Christina’s mother grabbed hold of her right hand and asked
her to squeeze. Christina squeezed, demonstrating that she could understand and respond
to language.
• How does this fit with information we’ve discussed about lateralization?
• However, Christina suffers from partial paralysis on the left side of her body.
• Christina has many accomplishments, demonstrating plasticity of the brain.
Neuroplasticity
• The brain’s ability to heal, grow new connections, and reorganize in order to adapt
to the environment
• Brain scans show when Braille is learned early in life, a region of the brain that
normally specializes in handling visual information becomes activated.
• In the case of injury, children’s brains show more plasticity than adults’ brains,
though this depends on the type and extent of the injury.
Put Your Heads Together (Part 2)
In your groups, discuss the following:
A) How is a split-brain operation different from a hemispherectomy?
B) If you had to undergo a hemispherectomy, which half of your brain would you
choose to have removed and why?
C) What functions might you lose as a result?
D) How might neuroplasticity impact your ability to regain these functions over
time?
Stem Cells and Neurogenesis
• Neurogenesis
• Some areas of the brain are capable of generating new neurons.
• Tied to learning and creating new memories
• Stem cells
• Cells responsible for producing new neurons
• Promising research using animal models, but large controlled randomized trials are
needed to better understand safety and effectiveness in humans
 The Cortex (Part 1)
• If you were Christina’s surgeon performing her
hemispherectomy, what would you see as you started the
surgery?
• Meninges
• Cerebrum
• Cerebral cortex
• The wrinkled outermost layer of the cerebrum,
responsible for higher mental functions, such as
decision making, language, and processing
visual information
• Why is the cortex wrinkled?
The Cortex (Part 2)
• The Cortex Overlying Each Hemisphere Is Separated into Different Sections or
Lobes.
• Frontal lobe: organizes information among the other lobes of the brain and is
responsible for cognitive functions, such as thinking, perception, and impulse control
• Parietal lobe: receives and processes sensory information, such as touch, pressure,
temperature, and spatial orientation
• Occipital lobe: processes visual information
• Temporal lobe: processes auditory stimuli and language
 Lobes of the Brain

Christina’s hemispherectomy removed

a significant portion of her right frontal
lobe. How might that impact her
thoughts, feelings, or behaviors?
Phineas Gage and the Frontal Lobes
• In 1848, Gage was impaled by a 3-foot
tamping rod through his cheek, brain, and
skull that caused dramatic changes in his
personality.
• Modern scientists revisited these data and
suggested that damage occurred in both
hemispheres.
Dogs, Cartoons, and the Motor Cortex
• A band of tissue toward the rear of the frontal
lobes that works with other brain regions to
plan and execute voluntary movements
• Fristch and Hitzig applied a mild shock to
dogs’ cortexes, demonstrating that the motor
cortex region is involved in muscle
movement.
• Penfield extended this work to humans,
creating a map represented by the
homunculus cartoon (“little man”).
Albert Einstein and the Parietal Lobes
• A postmortem comparison of 35 male brain
specimens and Einstein’s brain found that the
region of Einstein’s parietal lobe responsible for
visual spatial cognition and mathematical ability
was thinking 15% larger than those of the control
group.
• Do you think Einstein had a superbrain? What
cautions do we need to take in interpreting this
research finding?
 Penfield and the Somatosensory Cortex
• A band of tissue running parallel to the motor
cortex that receives and integrates sensory
information from all over the body
• Penfield, the neurosurgeon who created the
homunculus for the motor cortex, mapped the
somatosensory cortex in the same way.
The Temporal Lobes and the Auditory Cortex
• Below the parietal lobes, on the sides of your head, are the temporal lobes, which:
• process auditory stimuli,
• recognize visual objects, especially faces, and
• play a key role in language comprehension and memory.
• The auditory cortex receives information from the ears and allows us to “hear”
sounds.
The Occipital Lobes and the Primary Visual Cortex
• Visual information is initially processed in the occipital lobes, in the lower
back of the head.
• The experience of “seeing stars”

• The optic nerve connects to the primary visual cortex, where visual
information is received, interpreted, and processed.
• What might we expect if this area of the brain is damaged?
Summary: Regions of the Cortex, Table 2.2
Structure Function and Importance
Integrate information from all over the brain; allow us to learn, have abstract thoughts, and carry
Association areas
out complex behaviors.
Broca's area Involved in speech production; helps us generate speech.
Connects the hemispheres; allows the left and right sides of the brain to communicate and work
Corpus callosum
together to process information.
Process higher-level cognitive activities, such as language, emotions, control of social behavior,
Frontal lobes
and decision making.
Left cerebral hemisphere Controls the right side of the body; excels in language processing.
Motor cortex Plans and executes voluntary movements; allows us to move our body.
Occipital lobes Process visual information; help us see.
Parietal lobes Receive and process sensory information; orient the body in space.
Primary visual cortex Receives and interprets visual information; allows us to "see" vivid mental images.
Right cerebral hemisphere Controls the left side of the body; excels in visual-spatial tasks.
Receives and integrates sensory information from the body; for example, helps us determine if
Somatosensory cortex
touch is pleasurable or painful.
Play a key role in hearing, language comprehension, and memory; process auditory stimuli;
Temporal lobes
recognize visual objects.
Wernicke's area Plays a key role in language comprehension; enables us to make sense of what is being said.
The Association Areas
• Regions of the cortex that integrate information from all over the brain, allowing
us to learn, think in abstract terms, and carry out other intellectual tasks
• Located in all four lobes
• In humans, the vast majority of the brain’s cortex is dedicated to the association
areas.
Social Media and Psychology
• Whether you’re on social media or interacting in person, making connections and
empathizing with other people rely on a system of neurons some refer to as a
“social brain network.”
• How many meaningful social ties can your brain actually sustain?
• According to the “social brain hypothesis,” humans can handle a maximum of about 150
“coherent personal relationships” at any point in time.
• Once we pass 150, how does the nature of the relationship change?
 Drama Central: The Limbic System
• Collection of structures that regulates emotions
and basic drives like hunger, and aids in the
creation of memories
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Amygdala
• Hippocampus
 Better Brain Health: Food for Thought?
Table 2.3, Food for Thought?, Page 76
Food Potential Benefits
Walnuts contain chemical compounds that may reduce inflammation in the brain (Ros et al., 2018).
Walnuts Eating walnuts has been associated with enhanced verbal reasoning, and better learning, recall, and
processing speed (Arab & Ang, 2015; Pribis et al., 2012).
Like many fruits and vegetables, berries contain chemicals that reduce inflammation and limit the
activity of cell-damaging free radicals (Stix, 2020; Whyte et al., 2019). Eating blueberries,
Berries
strawberries, and other berries has been linked to better cognitive function (Devore et al., 2012;
Whyte et al., 2019).
Like many plant foods, cocoa beans contain flavonoids, which may have "neuroprotective effects" in
Dark chocolate and areas of the brain important to memory and learning (Socci et al., 2017). Cocoa flavonoids appear to
cocoa promote blood flow in the dentate gyrus (part of the hippocampus), which may enhance memory
(Lamport et al., 2020; Socci et al., 2017).
Oily fish, such as salmon, lake trout, sardines, and albacore tuna, are packed with omega-3 fatty
acids, which may play "an important role in maintaining brain structure and function with advancing
Oily fish
age" (Pottala et al., 2014, p. 435). Preliminary evidence suggests that omega-3 intake may help
prevent cognitive decline in people at risk for dementia (Vemuri et al., 2019).
Broccoli is an excellent source of vitamin K, choline, and folic acid, all of which appear to have a
Broccoli
positive impact on cognition (Ferland, 2013; Poly et al., 2011; Presse et al., 2013).
 The Brainstem
• Brainstem
• The brain’s ancient core which consists of a stalk-
like trio of structures
• Midbrain: the part of the brainstem involved in
levels of arousal; responsible for generating
movement patterns in response to sensory input
• Reticular formation
• Hindbrain: areas of the brain responsible for
fundamental life-sustaining processes
• Pons
• Medulla
• Forebrain: largest part of the brain; includes the
cerebrum and the limbic system.
The Cerebellum
• Cerebellum
• A structure located behind the
brainstem that is responsible for
muscle coordination and balance
• Latin for “little brain”
• What would you expect to see if
someone had damage to the
cerebellum?
Below the Cortex: Structures to Know
Table 2.4, Below the Cortex: Structures to Know, Page 77

Structure Function and Importance

Limbic system
Group of interconnected structures that play a role in our experiences of emotion,
motivation, and memory; fuels basic drives, such as hunger, sex, and aggression.

Thalamus Processes and relays sensory information to the cortex.

Hypothalamus Keeps the body's systems in a steady state.
Processes aggression and basic emotions like fear, along with the memories
Amygdala
associated with them.
Hippocampus Primarily responsible for processing and forming new memories from experiences.
Midbrain Plays a role in levels of arousal; home to neurons that help generate movement
patterns in response to sensory input.
Reticular formation Responsible for levels of arousal and our ability to selectively attend to important
incoming sensory data.
Hindbrain Responsible for fundamental life-sustaining processes.
Pons Helps regulate sleep-wake cycles and coordinates movement between the right
and left sides of the body.
Medulla Oversees functions such as breathing and heart rate.
Cerebellum Involved in muscle coordination and balance.
Put Your Heads Together (Part 3)
At this point, you understand how hard your brain works 24/7, often in ways beyond
your awareness. In your group,
A) choose an important activity that you would like to examine (for example,
giving a presentation in class, going on a first date) and discuss how specific
structures of the
B) limbic system,
C) brainstem, and
D) cerebellum may be involved.
Where Are They Now?
• Three years after his traumatic brain injury, Brandon
celebrated his marriage to Laura. The couple now has
three children.
• Brandon is able to use more humor and emotion,
articulate his thoughts in lengthy, complex sentences,
and read books.
• For 10 years, Christina has been working as a speech–
language pathologist in Buck’s County, Pennsylvania,
helping children overcome speech difficulties.
Let Their Stories Inspire You
• Brandon and Christina provide extreme and inspiring examples of neuroplasticity.
• Can your brain change?
• Yes! Expose yourself to new information and activities, and your brain will continue to
develop and adapt.