NERVOUS SYSTEM

DEFINITIONS
• Neuron: A nerve cell that receives and sends electrical signals over
long distances within the body. A neuron receives electrical input
signals from sensory cells (sensory neurons) and from other neurons.
The neuron sends electrical output signals to muscle neurons (motor
neurons) and to other neurons. A neuron that simply signals another
neuron is called an interneuron.
• Afferent: Carrying toward
• Efferent: Carrying away.
• Lobe: Part of an organ that appears to be separate in some way from
the rest. A lobe may be demarcated from the rest of the organ by a
fissure (crack), sulcus (groove), connective tissue or simply by its
shape.
DEFINITIONS
• Grey matter: The cortex of the brain, which contains nerve cell bodies. The
grey matter is so named because it is darker than the white matter, the part of
the brain that contains myelinated nerve fibres.
• White matter: The part of the brain that contains myelinated nerve fibres.
The white matter is white because it is the colour of myelin, the insulation
that covers nerve fibres.
• Voluntary: Done in accordance with the conscious will of the individual.
• Involuntary: Done other than in accordance with the conscious will of the
individual.
• Brainstem: The lowest part of the brain which merges with the spinal cord
and provides the major route by which the upper part of the brain send
information to, and receives information from, the spinal cord and peripheral
nerves. The brainstem consists of the medulla oblongata, midbrain, and pons.
DEFINITIONS
• Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain. It is divided into two
hemispheres, or halves.
• Cerebral: Of or pertaining to the cerebrum or the brain
Cerebral hemispheres: The two halves of the cerebrum, the largest
part of the brain.
Cerebellum: The portion of the brain that is in the back of the head,
between the cerebrum and the brain stem. It is involved in the control
of voluntary and involuntary movement as well as balance.
Cervical: Having to do with any kind of neck, including the neck on
which the head is perched and the neck of the uterus.
Frontal: In anatomy, pertaining to the forehead.
Hippocampus: An area deep in the forebrain that helps regulate
emotion, learning, and memory.
DEFINITIONS
• Hypothalamus: The area of the brain that secretes substances that influence
pituitary and other gland function and is involved in the control of body
temperature, hunger, thirst, and other processes that regulate body equilibrium.
• Medulla oblongata: The base of the brain, which is formed by the enlarged top of
the spinal cord. The medulla oblongata directly controls breathing, blood flow, and
other essential functions.
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS): The portion of the nervous system that is
outside the brain and spinal cord.
• Pons: A specific section of the brain formed by the rounded prominence on the
front surface of the brainstem.
• Spinal cord: The major column of nerve tissue that is connected to the brain and
lies within the vertebral canal and from which the spinal nerves emerge. Thirty-
one pairs of spinal nerves originate in the spinal cord: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5
lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal. The spinal cord and the brain constitute the
CNS.
DEFINITIONS
• Thoracic: Pertaining to the chest.
• Vertebrae: The preferred plural of vertebra. 4 areas Cervical vertebrae; Coccygeal
vertebrae; Lumbar vertebrae; Sacral vertebrae; and Thoracic vertebrae.
• Vital: Necessary to maintain life. For example, breathing is a vital function.
• Striatum: Part of the basal ganglia of the brain. The basal ganglia are
interconnected masses of grey matter located in the interior regions of the
cerebral hemispheres and in the upper part of the brainstem.
• Spine: The column of bone known as the vertebral column. The spine can be
categorized according to level of the body: cervical spine (neck), thoracic spine
(upper and middle back), and lumbar spine (lower back). Any short prominence
of bone. The spines of the vertebrae protrude at the base of the back of the neck
and in the middle of the back. These spines protect the spinal cord from injury
from behind.
DEFINITIONS
• Pineal gland, also known as the pineal body, or epiphysis cerebri is a small endocrine
gland in the brain. It produces melatonin, which affects the modulation of sleep
patterns in both seasonal and circadian rhythms
• Thalamus is a midline symmetrical structure of two halves, within the brain, situated
between the cerebral cortex and the midbrain. Some of its functions are the relaying of
sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex, and the regulation of consciousness,
sleep, and alertness.
• Amigdalae are two almond-shaped groups of nuclei located deep and medially within
the temporal lobes of the brain in complex vertebrates, including humans. perform a
primary role in the processing of memory, decision-making, and emotional reactions,
the amygdalae are considered part of the limbic system.
• limbic system is a set of brain structures located on both sides of the thalamus. It
includes the olfactory bulbs, hippocampus, hypothalamus, amygdala, anterior thalamic
nuclei, fornix, columns of fornix, mammillary body, septum pellucidum, habenular
commissure, cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, limbic cortex, and limbic
midbrain areas.
Neuron
• The basic functional unit of the nervous system . It is a highly
specialized cell.
• It has a cell body and its extensions ( nerve processes)
• Dendrites( afferent) conduct nerve impulses toward the cell body
• Axons ( efferent) conduct nerve impulses away from the cell body.
The axon terminal end in neuron, muscle or gland cells
• Sensory nerves are afferent. Motor nerves are efferent and mixed
nerves are comprised of both afferent and efferent nerve
processes.
Neuron

(Soma)

Nerve fiber
TYPES OF NEURON
 2 types of cells – 1. Neuron 2. Glial cell
The glial cells surrounds the neurons and provide support and
insulation between them. Abundant cells in CNS. Eg.
Oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, Astrocytes, Satellite cells
 SYNAPSE
• The microscopic gap between successive neurons is called Synaptic cleft.
• A synapse is a junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap
across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter.
• A synapse is a structure that permits a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical
signal to another neuron.
• Synapses are stabilized in position by Synaptic Adhesion Molecules projecting
from both the presynaptic and post synaptic neuron.
• Essential to neuron function.
• The synapse consists of 1. A Presynaptic ending that contains neurotransmitters,
Mitochondria and other cell organelles 2. A Post synaptic ending that contains
receptor sites for neurotransmitters 3. A synaptic cleft or space between the
presynaptic and post synaptic endings.
Synapse
• For communication between neurons to occur an electrical impulse must
travel down an axon to the synaptic terminal.
• At the pre-synaptic ending, an electrical impulse will trigger the migration of
vesicles containing neurotransmitters toward the presynaptic membrane.
• The neurotransmitters released are diffused across the synaptic cleft where
they bind with receptor site on the post synaptic ending to influence the
electrical response in the postsynaptic neuron
• The junction between the axon terminal and neurons or muscle cells or
gland cells- synapse. The space between the structures is called synaptic
cleft
SYNAPSE
 SYNAPSE
• When an impulse travel from the cell body along the axon, it eventually
reaches the axon terminal.
• When it reaches the terminal, the change in electrical charge triggers a
biochemical reaction that releases the neurotransmitters to the synaptic cleft
and cause excitation or inhibition on their target tissue.
• If the target tissue is a muscle it will cause contraction, if it is another neuron
it will trigger or inhibit another action potential in that downstream neuron.
• All functions of CNS occurs as a result of neuronal synapses.
 Resting potential

• Resting potential is a voltage difference between outer and inner membrane

surface at resting condition of the neuron. At resting condition outer surface is
positively charged and inner membrane surface is negatively charged. Two
ions Na+ and K+ are responsible.
• An unequal distribution of these two ions occurs on the two sides of the nerve
cell membrane because these ions are actively transported; sodium from
inside to outside and potassium from outside to inside. As a result of this
sodium- potassium pump, higher concentration of Na outside the cell and a
higher concentration of potassium on the inside than outside. Action potential
occurs only when the membrane is stimulated(depolarized) so that the sodium
channels are completely open. The minimum stimulus needed to achieve the
action potential is called the threshold stimulus.
SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP
BIOELECTRICAL PHENOMENA
• Bioelectricity refers to the electromagnetic energy produced by living organisms. Such
energy is usually manifested as ionic currents at nerves or muscles due to the
propagation of the so called action potentials.
• Voltage (Potential) is defined as a difference in energy values due to the electric field.
Membrane Potential: There is a potential difference across the membranes of most
cells, with the inside of the cells negative to the exterior. By convention, this resting
membrane potential (steady potential) is written with a minus sign, signifying that the
inside is negative relative to the exterior. The membrane that surrounds the cell is a
remarkable structure. It is not only semipermeable, allowing some substances to pass
through it and excluding others, but its permeability can be varied. It is generally referred
to as the plasma membrane. The nucleus is also surrounded by a membrane, and the
organelles are surrounded by or made up of membrane.
Bioelectrical phenomena
• Bioelectricity deals with cell membrane transport processes that control the
formation and dissipation of ion gradients. Ion gradients store energy in form of
an electrochemical potential. This energy can be converted into other forms of
energy. The electrochemical potential is available for signalling processes (action
potentials). Action potentials are a form of information used by electrically
excitable membranes to control the activity of cells (calcium signalling, muscle
contractility) and to support or suppress communication between cells (release of
chemical signalling molecules; hormones, neurotransmitters).
ACTION POTENTIAL
Most axons carry signals in the form of action potentials, which are discrete
electrochemical impulses that travel rapidly along an axon, starting at the cell body and
terminating at points where the axon makes synaptic contact with target cells
When an action potential reaches a presynaptic terminal, it activates the synaptic
transmission process. The first step is rapid opening of calcium ion channels in the
membrane of the axon, allowing calcium ions to flow inward across the membrane. The
resulting increase in intracellular calcium concentration causes vesicles (tiny containers
enclosed by a lipid membrane) filled with a neurotransmitter chemical to fuse with the
axon's membrane and empty their contents into the extracellular space. The
neurotransmitter is released from the presynaptic nerve through exocytosis. The
neurotransmitter chemical then diffuses across to receptors located on the membrane
of the target cell. The neurotransmitter binds to these receptors and activates them.
Depending on the type of receptors that are activated, the effect on the target cell can
be to excite the target cell, inhibit it, or alter its metabolism in some way. This entire
sequence of events often takes place in less than a thousandth of a second.
Membrane Potentials
ACTION POTENTIAL
Assignment Due date: 09.09.2016

Explain Reflex Action and Reflex Arc with the help of picture.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DZUub3EYkfk
Telencephalon Diencephalon
Mesencephalon Metencephalon Myelencephalon
DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
BRAIN
LOBES OF THE BRAIN
BRAIN
SULCUS AND GYRI
CEREBRAL FISSURES
 The lateralization of brain function is the tendency for some neural functions or 
cognitive processes to be more dominant in one hemisphere than the other

 medial longitudinal fissure

Corpus Callosum
FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF BRAIN
FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF BRAIN
FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF BRAIN
FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF BRAIN
FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF BRAIN
FRONTAL LOBE
FRONTAL LOBE- functions
Frontal lobe deals with higher level cognitive functions like reasoning and judgment.
Sometimes called executive function, it is associated with the pre-frontal cortex.
Most importantly the frontal lobe contains several cortical areas involved in the
control of voluntary muscle movement, including those necessary for the production
of speech and swallowing.
• The precentral gyrus, which may also be called the primary motor area or, most
commonly, the motor strip is immediately anterior to the central sulcus. It controls
the voluntary movements of skeletal muscles; cell bodies of the pyramidal tract are
found on this gyrus.
Broca's Area is found on the inferior third frontal gyrus in the hemisphere that is
dominant for language. This area is involved in the coordination or programming of
motor movements for the production of speech sounds. While it is essential for the
execution of the motor movements involved in speech it does not directly cause
movement to occur.
• Olfaction: The olfactory bulb, responsible for the sense of smell. In humans, this
part of the brain is much smaller and lies underneath the frontal lobe.
 PARIETAL LOBE
The left and right temporal lobes, located around ear level, allow a person to differentiate smells and sounds. They also
help in sorting new information and are believed to be responsible for short-term memory. The right lobe is primarily
involved in visual memory (i.e., memory for faces and pictures). The left lobe is primarily involved in verbal memory (i.e.,
memory for words and names).
PARIETAL LOBE
Parietal Lobe is immediately posterior to the central sulcus. It is anterior to the occipital lobe,
from which it is not separated by any natural boundary. Its inferior boundary is the posterior
part of the lateral fissure which divides it from the temporal lobe.
The parietal lobe is associated with sensation, including the sense of touch, kinesthesia,
perception of warmth and cold, and of vibration, also involved in writing and in some aspects of
reading.

The postcentral gyrus which is also called the primary sensory area or the sensory strip is
immediately posterior to the central sulcus. This area receives sensory feedback from joints and
tendons in the body and is organized in the same manner as the motor strip. Like the motor
strip, the sensory strip continues down into the longitudinal cerebral fissure and so has both a
lateral and a medial aspect. The pre sensory, secondary sensory, or sensory association areas
are located behind the postcentral gyrus. These areas are capable of more detailed
discrimination and analysis than is the primary sensory area. Information is first processed in the
primary sensory area and is then sent to the secondary sensory areas.
TEMPORAL LOBE
 TEMPORAL LOBE
• The primary auditory cortex is the part of the temporal lobe that processes
auditory information in humans and other vertebrates. It is a part of the
auditory system, performing basic and higher functions in hearing
TEMPORAL LOBE

The Temporal lobe is located beneath the lateral fissure on both cerebral hemispheres of the brain.The angular gyrus
lies near the superior edge of the temporal lobe. It is involved in there cognition of visual symbols. Fibers of many
different types travel through the angular gyrus, including axons associated with hearing, vision, and meaning.
The arcuate fasciculus, the group of fibers connecting Broca's area in the frontal lobe to Wernicke's area in the
temporal lobe also connects to the angular gyrus. Speech comprehension is attributed to Wernicke's area,
at the temporal-parietal lobe junction.
Learning and memory: Explicit memory formation is attributed to the hippocampus and associated regions of the
medial temporal lobe.

The two Occipital lobes are the smallest of four paired lobes in the human cerebral cortex. Located in the rearmost
portion of the skull. The primary visual cortex is located on the medial side of the occipital lobe.
Retinal sensors convey stimuli through the optic tracts to the lateral geniculate bodies, where optic radiations
continue to the visual cortex. Each visual cortex receives raw sensory information from the outside half of the retina
on the same side of the head and from the inside half of the retina on the other side of the head.
 The occipital lobe processes visual information. It is mainly
OCCIPITAL LOBE responsible for visual reception and contains association areas
that help in the visual recognition of shapes and colors.
Damage to this lobe can cause visual deficits.
INSULA
Elena had suffered a left-sided congenital stroke in utero,
which was sparking electric storms in her brain that spread
from the diseased area across the corpus callosum—the
great communicator between the two cerebral hemispheres
—to the healthy right side of her brain. She underwent left-
sided hemispherectomy removing the left half of her brain.
Recovery after a hemispherectomy is very positive. With
aggressive occupational therapy and physical therapy,
children can usually lead normal, productive lives.

.
 
Functions of Cerebrum
• Cerebrum is a large part of the brain containing the cerebral cortex of the two
cerebral hemispheres as well as several subcortical structures, including the
hippocampus, basal ganglia, and olfactory bulb. In humans, the cerebrum is the
uppermost region of the CNS. The thickness of the cerebral cortex is between 2 to 6
mm. The cortex has numerous grooves and bumps to increase its surface area. A
bump or bulge on the cortex is called a gyrus ( plural is "gyri") and a groove is called a
sulcus (plural is "sulci"). Thought , voluntary movement , language, reasoning and
perception are the major functions of the cerebral cortex.
1.Movement: The cerebrum directs the conscious motor functions of the body.
2. Sensory processing: The primary sensory areas of the cerebral cortex receive and
process visual, auditory, somatosensory, gustatory, and olfactory information
3.Language and communication: Speech and language are mainly attributed to the
parts of the cerebral cortex. Motor portions of language are attributed to Broca's area
within the frontal lobe. Speech comprehension is attributed to Wernicke's area, at the
temporal-parietal lobe junction.
 Functions of Cerebrum
• The left and right parietal lobes contain the primary sensory cortex, which controls sensation (touch and pressure),
and a large association area that controls fine sensation (judgment of texture, weight, size, and shape). Damage to the
right parietal lobe can cause visuo-spacial deficits, making it hard for the patient to find his/her way around new or
even familiar places. Damage to the left parietal lobe may disrupt a patient’s ability to understand spoken and/or
written language.

• The left and right temporal lobes, located around ear level, allow a person to differentiate smells and sounds. They
also help in sorting new information and are believed to be responsible for short-term memory. The right lobe is
primarily involved in visual memory (i.e., memory for faces and pictures). The left lobe is primarily involved in verbal
memory (i.e., memory for words and names). Adjacent areas in the superior, posterior, and lateral parts of the
temporal lobes are involved in high-level auditory processing. The temporal lobe is involved in
primary auditory perception, such as hearing, and holds the primary auditory cortex. The primary auditory cortex
receives sensory information from the ears and secondary areas process the information into meaningful units such as
speech and words. The superior temporal gyrus includes an area (within the lateral fissure) where auditory signals
from the cochlea first reach the cerebral cortex and are processed by the primary auditory cortex in the left temporal
lobe

The visual cortex is responsible for the rich ambit of sensations that form our visual experience. Damage to the visual
cortex can be sufficient to cause blindness, even though the eyes are unaffected. Moreover, damage to different areas of
the visual cortex can result in the disruption of specific aspects of vision, such as the recognition of shapes, the
perception of colors, the sensation of motion, or the determination of the positions of different objects in relation to a
person's body. Each of these aspects of vision represents an enormous computational problem, which contemporary
artificial systems can only handle to a very limited extent. 
THALAMUS
 FUNCTIONS OF THALAMUS
• Thalamus is situated between the cerebral cortex and the midbrain.
• Act as a relay between different subcortical areas and the cerebral cortex.
For the visual system, inputs from the retina are sent to the lateral geniculate
nucleus of the thalamus, which in turn projects to the visual cortex in the
occipital lobe.
• Plays an important role in regulating states of sleep and wakefulness.
• Thalamic nuclei have strong reciprocal connections with the cerebral cortex.
involved with consciousness. The thalamus plays a major role in regulating
arousal, the level of awareness, and activity. Damage to the thalamus can
lead to permanent coma.
HYPOTHALAMUS
HYPOTHALAMUS- FUNCTIONS
• The Hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and is part of the limbic
system.
• One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous
system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland (hypophysis).
• The hypothalamus is responsible for certain metabolic processes and other
activities of the Autonomic NS. It synthesizes and secretes certain neuro
hormones, called releasing hormones or hypothalamic hormones, and these in
turn stimulate or inhibit the secretion of pituitary hormones.
• Hypothalamus controls body temperature, hunger, important aspects of
parenting and attachment behaviours, thirst, fatigue, sleep, and circadian
rhythms.
Midbrain- functions
• The Midbrain comprises the tectum (corpora quadrigemina), tegmentum, the
cerebral aqueduct , and the cerebral peduncles, as well as several nuclei and
fasciculi.
• The mesencephalon is considered part of the brainstem. Its substantia nigra is
closely associated with motor system pathways of the basal ganglia. Dopamine
produced in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area plays a role in
excitation, motivation and habituation of humans . The midbrain helps to relay
information for vision and hearing.
• The corpora quadrigemina (quadruplet bodies) are four solid lobes on the dorsal
side of the cerebral aqueduct, where the superior posterior pair are called the
superior colliculi and the inferior posterior pair are called the inferior colliculi.
MIDBRAIN
 Cerebral peduncles
• The cerebral peduncles (also known as the cerebral crus) are the part of the
midbrain that link the remainder of the brainstem to the thalami and thereby, the
cerebrum. They are the most anterior structure in the midbrain and contain the
large ascending and descending tracts that run to and from the cerebrum.
PONS
 Pons- functions
• The pons is part of the brainstem, lies between the midbrain (above) and the
medulla oblongata (below) and in front of the cerebellum.
• The pons contains nuclei that relay signals from the forebrain to the
cerebellum, along with nuclei that deal primarily with sleep, respiration,
swallowing, bladder control, hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movement,
facial expressions, facial sensation, and posture.
• Within the pons is the pneumotaxic center consisting of the subparabrachial
and the medial parabrachial nuclei. This center regulates the change from
inhalation to exhalation.
• The pons is implicated in sleep paralysis, and also plays a role in generating
dreams.
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
 Medulla oblongata functions
• The medulla oblongata (or medulla) is located in the hindbrain, anterior to the
cerebellum. The medulla oblongata is a cone-shaped neuronal mass responsible for
multiple autonomic (involuntary) functions ranging from vomiting to sneezing. The
medulla contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and vasomotor centers and
therefore deals with the autonomic functions of breathing, heart rate and blood
pressure.
• The medulla oblongata connects the higher levels of the brain to the spinal cord.
• Reflex centers of vomiting, coughing, sneezing, and swallowing. These reflexes which
include the pharyngeal reflex, the swallowing reflex (also known as the palatal reflex),
and the masseter reflex can be termed, bulbar reflexes
• The control of ventilation. Respiration is regulated by groups of chemoreceptors. These
sensors detect changes in the acidity of the blood, thus if the blood is considered too
acidic by the medulla oblongata electrical signals are sent to intercostal and phrenical
muscle tissue increasing their contraction rate in order to reoxygenate the blood
CEREBELLUM
• The cerebellum,(Latin word for”little brain”) located at the bottom of the
brain, divided into two hemispheres; it contains a narrow midline zone called
the vermis. A set of large folds divide the overall structure into ten smaller
lobules. Cerebellar cortex is a folded layer of cortex and underneath there is
a layer of white matter. The cerebellum is a region of the brain that plays an
important role in motor control. Because of its large number of tiny granule
cells, the cerebellum contains more neurons than the rest of the brain.
• The major functions of the cerebellum are maintenance of movement,
balance and posture. Also contributes to coordination, precision, and
accurate timing. Cerebellar damage produces disorders in fine movement,
equilibrium, posture, and motor learning.
• Located in the posterior cranial fossa. The fourth ventricle, pons and
medulla are in front of the cerebellum. It is separated from the overlying
cerebrum by a layer of leathery dura mater, the tentorium cerebelli.
• Involved in some cognitive functions such as attention and language, and in
regulating fear and pleasure responses,
CEREBELLUM
CEREBELLUM
• The vestibulocerebellum regulates balance and eye movements.
• The spinocerebellum regulates body and limb movements.
• The neocerebellum is involved in planning movement and evaluating sensory
information for action. It receives input exclusively from the cerebral cortex.
• This outermost layer (molecular) of the cerebellar cortex contains cells- basket,
Golgi and stellate cells.
• The middle layer contains only one type of cell body—that of the large Purkinje
cell.
• The innermost layer (nuclear)contains the cell bodies of numerous and tiny
granular cells.
RETICULAR FORMATION
• The reticular formation are inter-meshed neural networks throughout the brainstem, that are
involved in multiple tasks such as regulating the cardiovascular system, breathing, sleep-
wake cycle and filtering incoming stimuli to discriminate irrelevant background stimuli. It is
essential for governing some of the basic functions of higher organisms, and is one of the
phylogenetically oldest portions of the brain. While breathing can be controlled both
consciously and unconsciously, conscious control of respiratory neuronal networks in the
reticular formation can affect other basic functions regulated by the brainstem, because of
the inter-meshed character of the reticular formation, e.g. the heart rate in yoga and
meditation.
• The reticular formation is a nerve network of nuclei clusters found in the human brain stem.
The dorsal tegmental nuclei are in the midbrain, the central tegmental nuclei are in the pons,
and the central nuclei and inferior nuclei are found in the medulla. The reticular formation
comprises most of the brain stem and is a critical region for functioning. Because this region
of the brain is so diverse and responsible for so many functions, the reticular formation is a
collection of neurons, all of which have specialized function.
• It regulates cortical activity reaching the cerebral cortex by way of the thalamus.
 RETICULAR FORMATION
• R.F is not an anatomical structure but more of a physiological entity.
• Part of vital “consciousness system” that extends throughout the central nervous
system. It receives multisensory input from ascending afferent pathways, which is
transmitted to the ventral and medial nucleus of the thalamus. A single neuron is
capable of activating large areas of the thalamus and the cerebral cortex.
• Functionally the R.F can be divided into afferent system and efferent system. The
sensory information is projected by way of the Ascending reticular activating
system.
RETICULAR FORMATION
• The medial reticular formation and lateral reticular formation are two columns
of neuronal nuclei with ill-defined boundaries that send projections through the
medulla and into the mesencephalon (midbrain). The nuclei can be differentiated
by function, cell type, and projections of efferent or afferent nerves.
Functions
• Somatic motor control – Some motor neurons send their axons to the reticular formation nuclei,
giving rise to the reticulospinal tracts of the spinal cord. These tracts function in maintaining tone,
balance, and posture—especially during body movements. The reticular formation also relays eye and
ear signals to the cerebellum so that the cerebellum can integrate visual, auditory, and vestibular
stimuli in motor coordination. Other motor nuclei produce rhythmic signals to the muscles of
breathing and swallowing.
• Cardiovascular control – The reticular formation includes the cardiac and vasomotor centers of the
medulla oblongata.
• Pain modulation – The reticular formation is one means by which pain signals from the lower body
reach the cerebral cortex. It is also the origin of the descending analgesic pathways. The nerve fibers
in these pathways act in the spinal cord to block the transmission of some pain signals to the brain.
• Sleep and consciousness – The reticular formation has projections to the thalamus and cerebral
cortex that allow it to exert some control over which sensory signals reach the cerebrum and come to
our conscious attention. It plays a central role in states of consciousness like alertness and sleep.
Injury to the reticular formation can result in irreversible coma. REM sleep and non-REM sleep. R.S
reverses sleep.
• Habituation – This is a process in which the brain learns to ignore repetitive, meaningless stimuli
while remaining sensitive to others. A good example of this is a person who can sleep through loud
traffic in a large city, but is awakened promptly due to the sound of an alarm or crying baby.
BASAL GANGLIA
STRUCTURES IN BASAL
GANGLIA
• Telencephalon- Caudate Nucleus, Lenticular Nucleus, Internal Capsule form Striate bodies
(Corpus Striatum)
• Diencephalon- Claustrum and Amigdaloid nucleus
• Mesencephalon-Substantia Nigra and Red nucleus
• Striated bodies or Corpus Striatum
• Caudate nucleus is curved and has a head and tail Head is bulged and becomes continuous with
amygdaloid nucleus. C.N is separated from L.N by a layer of white matter called internal capsule.
• Lenticular Nucleus is located in the cerebral white matter, composed of 2 nuclei- Putamen and
Globus Pallidus (striated appearance).
• Claustrum is located between putamen. It is bounded by white matter, external capsule.
• Amygdaloid nucleus, part of limbic system, continuous with tail of caudate nucleus.
• Internal Capsule separates L.N from C.N and thalamus. The converging fan shaped projection
fibres from cerebral cortex to the basal ganglia is called Corona radiata and enters B.G as
internal capsule and leaves B.G as Crus cerebri.
BASAL GANGLIA
• The B.G receive input from all parts of cerebral cortex (motor area). They also receive radiation
fibres from the thalamus and also from dopamine-synthesizing cells in the substantia nigra of the
mesencephalon. Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter and its deficiency results in motor
disorders including Parkinsonism. Plays a role in complex motor functions such as posture,
locomotion, balance and arm swinging while walking. B.G also has inhibitory functions ,decreasing
muscle tone and coordinates the motor behaviour of muscle groups.
• The direct pathway passes through the caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus, which are parts of
the basal ganglia. It also involves the substantia nigra, a part of the midbrain.In a resting
individual, a specific region of the globus pallidus, known as the internus, and a portion of the
substantia nigra, send spontaneous inhibitory signals to the thalamus, through the release of
GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Inhibition of the inhibitory neurons that project to
thalamus, which project to the motor regions of the cerebral cortices of the telencephalon, leads
to an increase in activity in the motor cortices, thereby promoting muscular action.
• When the cerebral cortex, determines that a particular motor activity will be executed, it
sends activating signals to the motor cortices. The motor cortices send signals through
the basal ganglia to refine the choice of muscles that will participate in the movement
and to amplify the activity in the motor cortices that will drive the muscle contractions.
In the direct pathway, the motor cortices send activating signals to the caudate
and putamen (which together form the striatum). The cells of the direct
pathway in the caudate and putamen that receive these signals are inhibitory
and, once they become activated, send inhibitory signals to the globus pallidus
and substantia nigra. Thus, activation of the direct pathway will stop activity in
the globus pallidus internus and substantia nigra pars reticulata. Before
activation of the direct pathway, these two nuclei were actively sending
inhibitory signals to the ventrolateral nucleus of the thalamus, which prevented
the development of significant activity in the motor cerebral cortices.
DIRECT BASAL GANGLIA PATHWAY
INDIRECT BASAL GANGLIA PATHWAY
COVERINGS OF BRAIN AND SPINAL
CORD
 CEREBRUM

THALAMUS

HYPOTHALAMUS

PINEAL GLAND

MID BRAIN

PONS

MEDULLA OBLONGATA PITUITARY GLAND

CEREBELLUM

SPINAL CORD
CRANIAL NERVES

Oh

Oh
Oh
To
Touch
And
Feel

Very

Good

Velvet
Aha!
Heaven
Cranial nerves
Cranial nerves are the nerves that emerge directly from
the brain (including the brainstem), in contrast to spinal
nerves (which emerge from segments of the spinal cord).
Cranial nerves relay information between the brain and
parts of the body, primarily to and from regions of the
head and neck.
 CRANIAL NERVE I (OLFACTORY NERVE) Sensory
• Sense of smell
• An elongated extension of the brain.
• The olfactory nerve actually composed of many small separate nerve fibers (20),
passes through perforations in the cribriform plate part of the ethmoid bone,
where they enter the olfactory bulb. These fibers are distributed over the mucus
membrane of the superior nasal concha and adjacent nasal septum. These fibers
terminate in the upper part of the nasal cavity and function to convey impulses
containing information about odours to the brain.
• Damage to the olfactory nerve can cause an inability to smell (anosmia), a
distortion in the sense of smell (parosmia), or a distortion or lack of taste.
CRANIAL NERVE II (OPTIC NERVE)
Sensory
• Sense of vision
• The optic nerve (II) transmits visual information.
An elongated extension of the brain. The rods and cones of the retina form first
order neurons which synapse with second order neurons in the retina, which
synapse with ganglion cells, third order neurons, whose myelinated axons form
the optic nerve fibers.
At optic chiasma the medial nerve fibers decussate, the lateral fibers remain
uncrossed. The optic tract continues to Lateral geniculate body and synapse takes
place to fourth order neurons. They continue to the occipital cortex.
Damage to the optic nerve (II) affects specific aspects of vision that depend on the
location of the lesion
 CRANIAL NERVE III (OCULOMOTOR)
Motor
• Supplies motor nerve fibers to the eyelid and ocular muscles also sphincter
muscles of the iris and ciliary muscles of the lens.
• Lesions of this nerve affect both conjugate and convergent eye movements
CRANIAL NERVE IV ( TROCHLEAR)
Motor
• At the trochlear nucleus the motor fibers of the trochlear nerve wind around
the cerebral peduncles prior to entering the superior orbital fissure.
• The fibers supply the superior oblique muscles of the eye
• A lesion may cause diplopia, when a person attempts to look down or to the
side.
CRANIAL NERVE V (TRIGEMINAL)
Both
• The trigeminal nerve is the largest and most complex of the 12 cranial
nerves (CNs). It supplies sensations to the face, mucous membranes,
and other structures of the head. It is the motor nerve for the muscles
of mastication and contains proprioceptive fibers.
• The motor root supplies various muscles. The sensory root arise from
semilunar ganglion and has 3 branches (trigeminal) 1. The ophthalmic
branch (Sensory), supplies the lacrimal gland, eyelid, cornea and iris of
the eye, mucus membrane of nasal cavity, sinuses etc. 2. The maxillary
branch supplies part of dura, lower eyelid, upper face skin, mucus
membrane of upper mouth, nose pharynx, upper jaw gums and teeth.
3. The mandibular branch (largest) contains both sensory and motor
fibers. Supplies lower teeth an gums, muscles of mastication, skin of
the ear, lower facial region, and 2/3 of the tongue. The lingual branch
communicates with facial nerve by way of the chorda tympani.
CRANIAL NERVE VI (ABDUCENT)
Motor
• A motor nerve, that leaves the brainstem at the junction of the pons and the
medulla. The nerve fibers arise from the abducent nucleus and ends in the
lateral rectus muscle of the eye.
• The abducens nerve carries axons of type GSE, general somatic efferent, which
innervate skeletal muscle of the lateral rectus.
• A lesion causes internal strabismus and double vision.
CRANIAL NERVE VII (FACIAL NERVE)
Both
• Emerges from the brainstem between the pons and the medulla, Large, complex and
important in speech production.2 nerves- facial nerve proper( supplies muscles of facial
expression) and nervous intermedius. Its motor root arises from pons and divide into
branches. Nervous intermedius arises from genicular ganglion
• controls the muscles of facial expression, and functions in the conveyance of taste
sensations from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue and oral cavity. It also supplies
preganglionic parasympathetic fibers to several head and neck ganglia.
• The main function of the facial nerve is motor control of all of the muscles of facial
expression. It also innervates the posterior belly of the digastric muscle, the stylohyoid
muscle, and the stapedius muscle of the middle ear
• Lesions cause variety of symptoms. Edema of the facial nerve at temporal portion is
common. The complex of symptoms called Bell’s palsy, subsides within 3 weeks.- facial
muscle drooping, inability to close eyelid, loss of corneal reflex, sensitivity to low frequency
sounds, lack of tear production, decreased saliva production(chorda tympani functions)
• The facial nerve motor nucleus is divided into upper facial motor neurons and lower facial
motor neurons.
Facial nerve
Facial nerve branches

• The nervous intermedius arises from the genicular ganglion and terminates in a
nucleus called tractus solitaries. Greater superficial petrosal nerve from the
genicular ganglion supplies the mucus membrane of the soft palate. Facial nerve
gives off motor fibers to stapedius muscle of the middle ear and also to chorda
tympani.

• The temporal branch supplies the auricular muscles, the frontalis, orbicularis
oculi, and corrugator muscles. The posterior auricular nerve supplies posterior
auricular muscle. Zygomatic branches supply orbicularis oculi. Buccal branches
supply superficial muscles of face.
• The mandibular branch supplies the muscles of lower lip. The cervical branch
supplies the platysma muscle.
Bell’s palsy
CRANIAL NERVE VIII (VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR) Sensory
• The vestibulocochlear nerve (auditory vestibular nerve), known as the eighth
cranial nerve, transmits sound and equilibrium (balance) information from the
inner ear to the brain. It has 2 parts; 1. the cochlear and 2. vestibular. They form a
common trunk only when entering the internal auditory meatus, but differ in
peripheral endings and functions.
• Cochlear nerve conveys impulses for hearing. Arises from spiral ganglion of cochlea.
The cochlear nerve travels away from the hair cells of cochlea of the inner ear
where it starts as the spiral ganglia. It is the inner hair cells of the organ of Corti
that are responsible for activation of afferent receptors in response to pressure
waves reaching the basilar membrane through the transduction of sound. A lesion
can cause deafness or partial deafness of ipsilateral ear.
• Vestibular nerve conveys impulses of equilibrium and orientation in 3-dimensional
space. Arises from vestibular ganglion.3 peripheral branches supply the utricle,
ampullae and the saccule of the inner ear. The central fibers follow the cochlear
nerve and terminates in the vestibular nucleus and some fibers pass the
cerebellum and some makes reflex pathways. Vestibular disease results in vertigo,
postural deviations, unsteady gait, nystagmus.
Vestibulocochlear nerves
 CRANIAL NERVE IX
(GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL) Both
• Contains motor and sensory fibers that supply the tongue and pharynx, carries afferent
sensory and efferent motor information also fibers of ANS. It exits the brainstem out
from the sides of the upper medulla. It has superior and inferior ganglion.
• The inferior ganglion contains cell bodies for the sensory fibers of the G.N and has
several branches, some of which are directly associated with speech mechanism. The
tympanic branch supplies parotid gland and mucus membrane of the middle ear cavity
and auditory tube. The carotid sinus nerve supplies the internal carotid artery with
sensory fibers for the B.P receptors. The pharyngeal branch supplies the mucus
membrane of pharynx. A single motor branch supplies the stylopharyngeal muscle. The
tonsillar and lingual branches supplies the mucus membrane of the palatine tonsils, soft
palate and posterior tongue. G p along with vagus nerve supplies upper pharyngeal
constrictor muscles, the pharyngeal plexus.
• Lesions of this nerve results in loss of sensations and taste from the posterior third of
the tongue, unilateral loss of gag reflex, deviation of uvula to the uninvolved side,
swallowing difficulties, tachycardia, as a result of carotid sinus disturbance
Glossopharyngeal nerves
CRANIAL NERVE X (VAGUS NERVE)
Both
• Extensive distribution through the neck and thorax and extends into abdominal cavity. interfaces with parasympathetic
control of the heart, lungs and digestive tract. The vagus nerves are paired. It is the longest nerve of the autonomic
nervous system in the human body
• Upon leaving the medulla oblongata, the vagus nerve extends through the jugular foramen, then passes into the carotid
sheath down to the neck, chest and abdomen, where it innervates viscera. Vagus nerve comprises between 80% and 90%
of afferent nerves mostly conveying sensory information about the state of the body's organs to the CNS.
• The neck branches serves speech mechanism. The pharyngeal branch contains both sensory and motor fibers that
supplies the pharynx and soft palate. The superior laryngeal branch divides into external ( motor) and internal (sensory)
branches. External branch supplies cricothyroid muscle, Internal branch supplies mucus membrane of the base of the
tongue. The recurrent laryngeal nerve arises from vagus, below pharynx. The right vagus nerve gives rise to the right
recurrent laryngeal nerve, ascends into the neck between the trachea and esophagus. The right vagus then crosses
anterior to the right subclavian artery, runs posterior to the superior vena cava, descends posterior to the right main
bronchus, and contributes to cardiac, pulmonary, and esophageal plexuses. It forms the posterior vagal trunk at the lower
part of the esophagus and enters the diaphragm through the esophageal hiatus. The left vagus nerve enters the thorax
between left common carotid artery and left subclavian artery and descends on the aortic arch. It gives rise to the left
recurrent laryngeal nerve, which hooks around the aortic arch to the left of the ligamentum arteriosum and ascends
between the trachea and esophagus. The left vagus further gives off thoracic cardiac branches, breaks up into the
pulmonary plexus, continues into the esophageal plexus, and enters the abdomen as the anterior vagal trunk in the
esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm. The glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves are functionally closely related.
• Lesions results in paralysis of soft palate, difficulty in swallowing. Lesions of recurrent nerve results in voice problems
Vagus nerve
CRANIAL NERVE XI (ACCESSORY OR
SPINAL ACCESSORY NERVE) Motor
• Motor nerve with cranial and spinal portion. The fibers of cranial part
arise from the nucleus ambiguous and emerge from medulla
oblongata. The branches connect with jugular ganglion of the vagus.
The remainder of the fibers are distributed to the pharyngeal and
superior branches of the vagus nerve. Shoulder shrug
CRANIAL NERVE XII (HYPOGLOSSAL
NERVE) Motor
The hypoglossal nerve is the twelth cranial
nerve, and innervates all extrinsic and intrinsic
muscles of the tongue, except for the
palatoglossus. It is solely a motor nerve. The
nerve arises from the hypoglossal nucleus in
the brain stem as a number of small rootlets,
passes through the hypoglossal canal and down
through the neck, and eventually passes up
again over the tongue muscles it supplies into
the tongue.

The nerve is involved in controlling tongue

movements required for speech and
swallowing.
Blood supply to the brain is normally divided into anterior and posterior segments,
relating to the different arteries that supply the brain. The two main pairs of arteries are
the Internal carotid arteries (supply the anterior brain) and vertebral arteries (supplying the
brainstem and posterior brain).
CIRCLE OF WILLIS
Circle of Willis
CIRCLE OF WILLIS
• The circle of Willis (also called Willis' circle, loop of Willis, cerebral arterial circle, and Willis
polygon) is a circulatory anastomosis that supplies blood to the brain and surrounding structures. It is
named after Thomas Willis.
• The left and right internal carotid arteries arise from the left and right common carotid arteries.
• The posterior communicating artery is given off as a branch of the internal carotid artery just before it
divides into its terminal branches - the anterior and middle cerebral arteries. The anterior cerebral
artery forms the anterolateral portion of the circle of Willis, while the middle cerebral artery does not
contribute to the circle.
• The right and left posterior cerebral arteries arise from the basilar artery, which is formed by the left
and right vertebral arteries. The vertebral arteries arise from the subclavian arteries.
• The anterior communicating artery connects the two anterior cerebral arteries and could be said to
arise from either the left or right side.
• The arrangement of the brain's arteries into the circle of Willis creates redundancies or collaterals in
the cerebral circulation. If one part of the circle becomes blocked or narrowed (stenosed) or one of
the arteries supplying the circle is blocked or narrowed, blood flow from the other blood vessels can
often preserve the cerebral perfusion well enough to avoid the symptoms of ischemia.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
CSF
• The CSF pressure, measured at lumbar puncture (LP), is 100-180 mm of H2O (8-
15 mm Hg) with the patient lying on the side and 200-300 mm with the patient
sitting up.
• CSF is produced at a rate of 0.2 - 0.7 ml per minute or 600-700 ml per day. The
circulation of CSF is aided by the pulsations of the choroid plexus and by the
motion of the cilia of ependymal cells. CSF is absorbed across the arachnoid villi
into the venous circulation and a significant amount probably also drains into
lymphatic vessels around the cranial cavity and spinal canal. The arachnoid villi
act as one-way valves between the subarachnoid space and the dural sinuses.
The rate of absorption correlates with the CSF pressure. CSF acts as a cushion that
protects the brain from shocks and supports the venous sinuses (primarily the
superior sagittal sinus, opening when CSF pressure exceeds venous pressure). It
also plays an important role in the homeostasis and metabolism of the central
nervous system.
 Functions of CSF

• Buoyancy
• Cushion
• Communication
• CSF layer acts as a mechanical shock absorber, as a cushion in head
trauma.
• Carries nutrients to and takes waste products from brain.
• Produced in chambers called ventricles. Largest is Lateral Ventricle.
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• That part of the nervous system which is located
outside the bony confines of the skull and vertebral
column.
• Includes 12 pairs of cranial nerves and their ganglia,
dorsal and ventral routs of the spinal nerves, the 31
pairs of spinal nerves and their dorsal root ganglia,
peripheral nerves, and the ganglia and nerve
processes of the autonomic nervous system.
SPINAL CORD
SPINAL CORD
• Cervical Vertibrae, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacrum(Fused), Coccyx (fused)

31 pairs of spinal nerves originate in the spinal

cord: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral,
and 1 coccygeal. The spinal cord and the brain
constitute the CNS.
SPINAL CORD
• The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum (upper border of first cervical
vertebra) where it is continuous with the medulla to the level of the first or
second lumbar vertebrae. The spinal cord is 40 to 50 cm long and 1 cm to 1.5 cm
in diameter. Two consecutive rows of nerve roots emerge on each of its sides.
These nerve roots join distally to form 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
• The spinal cord is a cylindrical structure of nervous tissue composed of white and
grey matter, is uniformly organized and is divided into four regions: cervical (C),
thoracic (T), lumbar (L) and sacral (S), each of which is comprised of several
segments. The spinal nerve contains motor and sensory nerve fibers to and from
all parts of the body. Each spinal cord segment innervates a dermatome.
• The spinal cord gradually tapers to a blunt point called conus medullaris.
• The tip of conus medullaris is prolonged into a fine filament of fibrous tissue
(dura) called filum terminale, continues to coccyx.
SPINAL CORD
• Below the conus medullaris , the spinal nerves give the appearance of a horse’s tail are
called the cauda equina.
• The S.C is incompletely divided into right and left halves by an anterior (deeper) and
posterior median sulcus(fissure).
• The floor is formed by a transverse band of white matter called anterior white
commissure.
• Posterior lateral sulcus and posterior intermediate sulcus further divides the posterior
part of spinal cord.
• Cross section of SC shows central core of grey matter surrounded by white matter.
• The transverse commissure of grey matter gives the appearance of H or butterfly
shape. A frontal plane divide SC into dorsal and ventral columns. The ventral columns
contain motor nerves and the dorsal columns contain sensory nerves.
• Substantia gelatinosa is lamina II and III and process sensory information.
• White matter is divided into 3 pairs of funiculi- ventral, lateral and dorsal.
External features
Functions
• It is a vital link between the brain and the body, and from the body to the brain.
Somatosensory organization, Motor organization, Spinocerebellar tracts-
Descending tracts involve two neurons: the upper motor neuron (UMN) and lower motor
neuron (LMN).

• Electrical communication. Electrical signals are conducted up and down the cord, allowing
communication between different sections of the body and with the brain, since the cord
runs through different levels of the trunk section.
• Walking ( locomotion). During walking, several muscle groups in the legs are coordinated
to contract over and over again. The act of putting one foot in front of the other while
walking has to be carefully coordinated by several groups of neurons known as central
pattern generators in the spinal cord. These neurons send signals to the muscles in the legs,
causing to the extend or contract, producing the alternating movements that are involved in
walking.
• Reflexes. These are predictable involuntary responses to stimuli that involve the brain, spinal
cord and nerves of the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
General Features
• Similar cross-sectional structures at all spinal cord levels.
• It carries sensory information (sensations) from the body and some from
the head to the central nervous system (CNS) via afferent fibers, and it
performs the initial processing of this information.
• Motor neurons in the ventral horn project their axons into the periphery
to innervate skeletal and smooth muscles that mediate voluntary and
involuntary reflexes.
• It contains neurons whose descending axons mediate autonomic control
for most of the visceral functions.
• It is of great clinical importance because it is a major site of traumatic
injury and the locus for many disease processes.
• The cord is sheathed in the same three meninges as is the brain: the pia,
arachnoid and dura. The dura is the tough outer sheath, the arachnoid
lies beneath it, and the pia closely adheres to the surface of the cord
SPINAL CORD-Cross section
 BLOOD SUPLY TO SPINAL CORD
• The spinal cord is supplied with blood by three arteries that run along its length
starting in the brain, and many arteries that approach it through the sides of the
spinal column. The vertebral arteries and the ten medullary arteries that arise from
segmental branches of the aorta provide the primary vascularization of the spinal
cord. These medullary arteries join to form the anterior and posterior spinal
arteries. If any of the medullary arteries are obstructed or damaged (during
abdominal surgery, for example), the blood supply to specific parts of the spinal
cord may be compromised. The pattern of resulting neurological damage differs
according to whether the supply to the posterior or anterior artery is
interrupted. The three longitudinal arteries are called the anterior spinal artery, and
the right and left posterior spinal arteries. These travel in the subarachnoid space
and send branches into the spinal cord. They form anastamoses (connections) via
the anterior and posterior segmental medullary arteries, which enter the spinal cord
at various points along its length. The actual blood flow caudally through these
arteries, derived from the posterior cerebral circulation, is inadequate to maintain
the spinal cord beyond the cervical segments.
BLOOD SUPPLY TO SPINAL CORD

Reflex Action
A reflex, or reflex action, is an involuntary and nearly
instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus.
When a receptor is stimulated, it sends a signal to the
central nervous system, where the brain co-ordinates the
response. But sometimes a very quick response is
needed, one that does not need the involvement of the
brain. This is a reflex action. Reflex actions are rapid
and happen without us thinking.
1.receptor detects a stimulus - change in
the environment
2.sensory neurone sends signal to relay
neurone
3.motor neurone sends signal to effector
4.effector produces a response
A reflex is made possible by neural
pathways called reflex arcs which can act on an
impulse before that impulse reaches the brain.