BIOLOGY 2ND YEAR

CHEMICAL COORDINATION
SUBTOPIC
• - Nerve impulse
A nerve impulse, also known as an action potential, is a rapid and
transient change in the membrane potential of a nerve cell (neuron). This
electrical signal is crucial for the transmission of information within the
nervous system. Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous
system, and they communicate with each other through these electrical
impulses.
• Here's a brief overview of how a nerve impulse is generated and transmitted:
• Resting Membrane Potential: Neurons have a resting membrane potential, which is a
difference in electrical charge across the cell membrane. This is typically around -70
millivolts inside the cell compared to the outside
• Stimulus: When a neuron receives a stimulus, either from another neuron or from sensory
input, it can lead to a change in the membrane potential.
• Depolarization: If the stimulus is strong enough, it can cause the membrane potential to
become less negative (depolarized). This change in voltage opens voltage-gated sodium
channels in the cell membrane.
• Action Potential: The opening of sodium channels allows sodium ions to
rush into the cell, causing a rapid and dramatic increase in the membrane
potential. This results in the generation of an action potential—a brief
reversal of the membrane potential.
• Propagation: The action potential travels down the length of the neuron's
axon. The impulse is conducted by the movement of ions (mainly sodium
and potassium) across the cell membrane.
• Repolarization: After the action potential passes, the cell membrane
returns to its resting state through the process of repolarization.
Potassium channels open, allowing potassium ions to move out of the
• Hyperpolarization: In some cases, the membrane potential may briefly
become more negative than the resting state (hyperpolarization) before
returning to the resting potential. This period is often crucial in preventing
the neuron from immediately firing another action potential.
• Refractory Period: Following an action potential, there is a brief refractory
period during which the neuron is less responsive to additional stimuli.
This ensures the directionality and discrete nature of nerve impulses.
• The propagation of nerve impulses allows for communication between
neurons, enabling the transmission of information throughout the nervous
system. This process is fundamental to various physiological functions,
including sensory perception, motor control, and cognitive processes.
Steps involved in nervous coordination

•
A nerve impulse, also known as an action potential, is a rapid and
transient change in the membrane potential of a nerve cell (neuron). This
electrical signal is crucial for the transmission of information within the
nervous system. Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous
system, and they communicate with each other through these electrical
impulses.
• Resting Membrane Potential: Neurons have a resting membrane
potential, which is a difference in electrical charge across the cell
membrane. This is typically around -70 millivolts inside the cell
compared to the outside.
• Stimulus: When a neuron receives a stimulus, either from another neuron
or from sensory input, it can lead to a change in the membrane potential.
• Depolarization: If the stimulus is strong enough, it can cause the
membrane potential to become less negative (depolarized). This change
in voltage opens voltage-gated sodium channels in the cell membrane.
• Action Potential: The opening of sodium channels allows sodium ions to
rush into the cell, causing a rapid and dramatic increase in the membrane
potential. This results in the generation of an action potential brief reversal
of the membrane potential.
• Propagation: The action potential travels down the length of the neuron's
axon. The impulse is conducted by the movement of ions (mainly sodium
and potassium) across the cell membrane.
• Repolarization: After the action potential passes, the cell membrane
returns to its resting state through the process of repolarization.
Potassium channels open, allowing potassium ions to move out of the
cell.
• Hyperpolarization: In some cases, the membrane potential may briefly
become more negative than the resting state (hyperpolarization) before
returning to the resting potential. This period is often crucial in preventing
the neuron from immediately firing another action potential.
• Refractory Period: Following an action potential, there is a brief refractory
period during which the neuron is less responsive to additional stimuli.
This ensures the directionality and discrete nature of nerve impulses.
• The propagation of nerve impulses allows for communication between
neurons, enabling the transmission of information throughout the nervous
system. This process is fundamental to various physiological functions,
including sensory perception, motor control, and cognitive processes.
- Neurons (Structure and Types)
• Neurons are the basic functional units of the nervous system, responsible
for transmitting information in the form of electrical signals. They come in
various shapes and sizes, but all neurons share common structural
components. There are three main types of neurons based on their
function: sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.
• Neuron Structure:
• Cell Body (Soma):
• The cell body contains the nucleus and most of the organelles. It
integrates information from dendrites and decides whether to generate an
action potential.
• Dendrites:
• Dendrites are branching extensions from the cell body that receive signals
from other neurons or sensory receptors. They play a crucial role in
transmitting information toward the cell body.
• Axon:
• The axon is a long, slender projection that conducts the action potential
away from the cell body toward other neurons, muscles, or glands.
• Axon Hillock:
• This is the region where the axon originates from the cell body. It is
important in determining whether an action potential will be generated.
• Myelin Sheath:
• Some axons are surrounded by a fatty substance called myelin, which
acts as an insulating layer. Myelin speeds up the conduction of nerve
impulses along the axon.
• Myelin Sheath:
• Some axons are surrounded by a fatty substance called myelin, which
acts as an insulating layer. Myelin speeds up the conduction of nerve
impulses along the axon.
• Axon Terminals (Synaptic Terminals):
• The axon terminals are specialized endings that form synapses with other
neurons or target cells. They contain vesicles filled with
neurotransmitters.
• Synapse:
• The synapse is the junction between the axon terminals of one neuron and
the dendrites or cell body of another neuron. It is the site of
communication between neurons.
• Types of Neurons:
• Sensory Neurons:
• Transmit sensory information (e.g., touch, temperature, light) from
sensory receptors to the central nervous system (CNS).
• Sensory Neurons:
• Function: Sensory neurons, also known as afferent neurons, are
responsible for transmitting sensory information from sensory receptors
to the central nervous system (CNS). These receptors can detect various
stimuli such as touch, temperature, pain, light, sound, and more.
• Example: When you touch a hot surface, sensory neurons in your skin
detect the temperature and send signals to the spinal cord and brain,
allowing you to perceive the sensation of hea
• Interneurons:
• Function: Interneurons, also called association neurons, are found
entirely within the central nervous system (CNS). They integrate and
process information received from sensory neurons and transmit signals
to motor neurons or other interneurons. Interneurons play a crucial role in
decision-making and complex processing.
• Example: If you touch a hot surface, interneurons in the spinal cord may
relay the signal to motor neurons, instructing muscles to quickly withdraw
your hand from the source of heat.
• Motor Neurons:
• Function: Motor neurons, also known as efferent neurons, transmit
signals from the central nervous system to effectors such as muscles or
glands. These neurons are responsible for initiating a response or action
based on the processed information.
• Example: When you decide to move your hand away from a hot surface,
motor neurons carry the signals from the brain or spinal cord to the
muscles, causing them to contract and move the hand.
• ensory neurons bring information from the environment or the body's
internal conditions to the central nervous system.
• Interneurons process and integrate this information within the central
nervous system.
• Motor neurons transmit signals from the central nervous system to
effectors, resulting in a specific response or action.
• Together, these three types of neurons work in concert to enable the
nervous system to perceive, process, and respond to stimuli,
facilitating various functions such as movement, sensory perception,
and coordination of bodily processes.
•
• Additional Types:
• Multipolar Neurons:
Multipolar neurons are a type of neuron characterized by having multiple
processes, or extensions, emanating from the cell body. Among these
processes, there is one axon and multiple dendrites. This structural
arrangement is common in many neurons of the central nervous system
(CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord.
Here are the key features of multipolar neurons:
• Cell Body (Soma): The cell body contains the nucleus and most of the
cell's organelles. It is the metabolic center of the neuron.
• Dendrites: Multipolar neurons have multiple dendrites, which are
branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons or sensory
receptors. Dendrites play a crucial role in transmitting information toward
the cell body.
• Axon: There is a single axon extending from the cell body. The axon carries
the nerve impulse away from the cell body toward other neurons,
muscles, or glands.
• Axon Hillock: The region where the axon originates from the cell body. It is
important in determining whether an action potential will be generated.
• Myelin Sheath (if present): Some multipolar neurons may have myelin
sheaths around their axons, which act as insulators and enhance the
speed of nerve impulse transmission.
• Nodes of Ranvier (if myelinated): Gaps in the myelin sheath where the
axon is exposed. Action potentials jump from node to node, speeding up
the conduction of nerve impulses.
• Axon Terminals (Synaptic Terminals): Specialized endings at the tip of
the axon that form synapses with other neurons or target cells. Axon
terminals contain vesicles filled with neurotransmitters.
• Bipolar Neurons:
• Bipolar neurons are a type of neuron characterized by having two main
processes (extensions) emanating from opposite ends of the cell body.
One process serves as the dendrite, while the other functions as the axon.
This structural arrangement is less common than multipolar neurons and
is often found in specialized sensory organs. Here are the key features of
bipolar neurons:
• Cell Body (Soma): The cell body contains the nucleus and other cellular
organelles. It is the metabolic center of the neuron.
• Dendrite: One process extends from the cell body and functions as a
dendrite. This dendrite receives sensory information from the external
1. Cell Body (Soma)d.
environment or other neurons.
• Axon: The other process extends from the opposite end of the cell body
and functions as an axon. The axon carries nerve impulses away from the
cell body.
• Axon Hillock: The region where the axon originates from the cell body. It is
important in determining whether an action potential will be generated.
• Myelin Sheath (if present): Some bipolar neurons may have myelin sheaths around
their axons, which can enhance the speed of nerve impulse transmission.
• Nodes of Ranvier (if myelinated): Gaps in the myelin sheath where the axon is exposed.
Action potentials jump from node to node, speeding up the conduction of nerve
impulses.
• Bipolar neurons are often associated with sensory processing and are commonly found
in specialized sensory organs such as the retina of the eye, the olfactory epithelium in
the nose, and the vestibular and cochlear ganglia of the inner ear. In these sensory
structures, bipolar neurons play a role in relaying specific sensory information to the
central nervous system, contributing to the perception of visual, olfactory, and auditory
stimuli. The bipolar structure allows for a clear separation of the input (dendrite) and
output (axon) regions of the neuron.
•
• Unipolar (Pseudounipolar) Neurons:
• Unipolar neurons, also known as pseudounipolar neurons, are a type of
neuron with a single, elongated process that emerges from the cell body.
This single process later splits into two branches, functioning as both an
axon and a dendrite. Unipolar neurons are commonly found in the
peripheral nervous system, especially in sensory neurons that transmit
information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system (CNS).
• Here are the key features of unipolar neurons:
• Cell Body (Soma): The cell body contains the nucleus and other cellular
organelles. It is the metabolic center of the neuron.
• Single Process: The single process extends from the cell body and
represents both the axon and the dendrite.
• Peripheral Branch (Dendritic-Like): One branch extends toward the
periphery and functions in a dendritic manner by receiving sensory stimuli
from the environment.
• Central Branch (Axonal-Like): The other branch extends toward the
central nervous system, transmitting the sensory information to the CNS
in an axonal manner.
• Axon Hillock: The region where the axon originates from the cell body.
• Myelin Sheath (if present): Some unipolar neurons may have myelin
sheaths around their axonal branches, enhancing the speed of nerve
impulse transmission.
• Nodes of Ranvier (if myelinated): Gaps in the myelin sheath where the
axon is exposed. Action potentials jump from node to node, speeding up
the conduction of nerve impulses.
• Unipolar neurons are commonly associated with sensory functions,
particularly in conveying information about touch, pressure, pain, and
other sensory modalities from the peripheral tissues to the central
nervous system. The pseudounipolar structure allows for a rapid
transmission of sensory information over long distances without the need
for the signal to travel through a lengthy axon. This adaptation is
advantageous for the efficient and swift relay of sensory signals to the
CNS for processing and response.
•
• Transmission of action potential between
cells–synapse
• The transmission of an action potential (nerve impulse) between neurons
occurs at specialized junctions called synapses. A synapse is the point
where two neurons communicate, allowing the electrical signal to be
transmitted from one neuron to another. The process involves several key
steps
• :Presynaptic Neuron:
• Action Potential Arrival: When an action potential reaches the axon
terminals of the presynaptic neuron, it triggers the opening of voltage-
gated calcium channels.
• Calcium Influx: Calcium ions (Ca2+) enter the presynaptic neuron's axon
terminals. The increase in calcium concentration facilitates the fusion of
synaptic vesicles with the presynaptic membrane.
• Neurotransmitter Release: Synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters
(e.g., acetylcholine) fuse with the presynaptic membrane, releasing
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
• Synaptic Cleft:
• Neurotransmitter Diffusion: Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic
cleft, a small gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons.
• Postsynaptic Neuron:
• Binding to Receptors: Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the
postsynaptic membrane. These receptors are usually ligand-gated ion channels.
• Ion Channel Activation: The binding of neurotransmitters opens the ion
channels, allowing the flow of ions (such as sodium, potassium, or chloride)
across the postsynaptic membrane.
• Postsynaptic Potential: The influx or efflux of ions results in a change in
the postsynaptic membrane potential. This change is called a
postsynaptic potential (PSP).
• Postsynaptic Response:
• Integration of PSPs: If the postsynaptic neuron receives multiple PSPs,
they are integrated at the axon hillock. If the sum reaches the threshold,
an action potential is generated.
• Propagation of Action Potential: If the threshold is reached, an action
potential is initiated and travels down the postsynaptic neuron's axon.
• Termination of Signal:
• Removal of Neurotransmitters: The neurotransmitters in the synaptic
cleft are either broken down by enzymes or taken back up into the
presynaptic neuron through reuptake.
• Modulation:
• Feedback Mechanisms: The strength of the synaptic transmission can be
modulated by various factors, including feedback mechanisms,
presynaptic inhibition, or facilitation.
• This process ensures the unidirectional flow of information from the
presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron. The ability of
neurotransmitters to bind to specific receptors and induce changes in the
postsynaptic membrane potential is fundamental to the communication
and integration of signals within the nervous system.
•
-

•Electrical synapses
• Electrical synapses are specialized junctions between neurons that allow
for direct electrical communication between the cells. In contrast to
chemical synapses, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit
signals, electrical synapses enable the flow of ions directly from one
neuron to another through gap junctions. Gap junctions are clusters of
channels that connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells, allowing for the
rapid transmission of electrical signals.
• Here are the key features and characteristics of electrical synapses:
• Gap Junctions:
• Electrical synapses are characterized by gap junctions, which are protein
channels that form direct connections between the membranes of adjacent
neurons.
• Gap junctions consist of connexin proteins, which assemble to create channels
that permit the passage of ions, small molecules, and electrical current.
• Direct Transmission:
• Unlike chemical synapses, where neurotransmitters are released into the
synaptic cleft, electrical synapses allow for the direct flow of ions between
connected neurons.
• This direct transmission allows for faster and more synchronized communication
between neurons.
• Bidirectional Communication:
• Electrical synapses facilitate bidirectional communication, meaning that
the flow of ions can occur in both directions between the connected
neurons.
• The bidirectional nature of electrical synapses is essential for coordinated
activity among groups of neurons.
• Rapid Signal Transmission:
• Electrical synapses allow for very rapid transmission of signals, often in
the range of milliseconds.
• This rapid transmission is crucial for functions such as synchronized firing
of neurons in certain circuits.
• Rapid Signal Transmission:
• Electrical synapses allow for very rapid transmission of signals, often in
the range of milliseconds.
• This rapid transmission is crucial for functions such as synchronized firing
of neurons in certain circuits.
• Common in Some Brain Regions:
• Electrical synapses are more prevalent in certain regions of the nervous
system, such as the central nervous system (CNS).
• They are found in areas where rapid and synchronized communication is
essential, including some parts of the brain.
• Modulation:
• The strength of electrical synapses can be modulated, allowing for
flexibility in the degree of coupling between neurons.
• Modulation of electrical synapses can influence the overall network
dynamics.
• While chemical synapses are more common in the nervous system,
electrical synapses play a critical role in specific contexts where rapid and
synchronized communication is needed. They contribute to the overall
functionality of neural circuits and are involved in various physiological
processes.
- Chemical synapses
Chemical synapses are specialized junctions between neurons that allow for the
transmission of signals through the release and reception of chemical messengers
called neurotransmitters. These synapses are crucial for the communication betwe
neurons in the nervous system. The process at a chemical synapse involves several
steps:
Axon Terminal of Presynaptic Neuron:
• An action potential (nerve impulse) travels down the axon of the presynaptic neuro
• Neurotransmitter Release:
• Arrival of the action potential at the axon terminal triggers the opening of voltage-
gated calcium channels.
• Calcium influx into the axon terminal causes synaptic vesicles containing
• Neurotransmitter Diffusion:
• Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft, a small gap
between the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron and the dendrites
or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron.
• Receptor Binding on Postsynaptic Membrane:
• Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic
membrane of the receiving neuron. These receptors are usually ligand-
gated ion channels.
• Ion Channel Activation:
• The binding of neurotransmitters to receptors opens ion channels,
allowing the flow of ions (such as sodium, potassium, or chloride)
across the postsynaptic membrane.
• Postsynaptic Potential (PSP):
• The flow of ions results in a change in the postsynaptic membrane
potential, known as a postsynaptic potential (PSP).
• Integration of Signals:
• If the sum of excitatory and inhibitory PSPs reaches the threshold at
the axon hillock, an action potential may be initiated in the
postsynaptic neuron.
• Neurotransmitter Inactivation or Removal:
• Neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft are either broken down by
enzymes, reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron (reuptake), or diffuse
away.
• Postsynaptic Potential (PSP):
• The flow of ions results in a change in the postsynaptic membrane
potential, known as a postsynaptic potential (PSP).
• Integration of Signals:
• If the sum of excitatory and inhibitory PSPs reaches the threshold at
the axon hillock, an action potential may be initiated in the
postsynaptic neuron.
• Neurotransmitter Inactivation or Removal:
• Neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft are either broken down by
enzymes, reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron (reuptake), or diffuse
away.
• Chemical synapses play a fundamental role in neural communication and
information processing within the nervous system. The ability to release
and respond to neurotransmitters allows for the modulation of signals, the
integration of information, and the adaptation of synaptic strength based
on experience and learning.
•
Transmission of nerve impulse across
synapse
• The transmission of a nerve impulse across a synapse involves the transfer of
information from one neuron (presynaptic neuron) to another (postsynaptic
neuron) or to an effector cell, such as a muscle or gland. This process occurs
through the release and reception of chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters. Here is a step-by-step overview of the transmission of a nerve
impulse across a chemical synapse:Action Potential in Presynaptic Neuron:
• An action potential (nerve impulse) travels down the axon of the presynaptic
neuron toward the axon terminals.
• Opening of Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels:
• When the action potential reaches the axon terminals, it triggers the opening
of voltage-gated calcium channels.
• Calcium Influx:
• Calcium Influx:
• Calcium ions (Ca2+) enter the presynaptic neuron's axon terminals
due to the opened calcium channels. The influx of calcium is essential
for the release of neurotransmitters.
• Neurotransmitter Release:
• The increase in calcium concentration causes synaptic vesicles
containing neurotransmitters (e.g., acetylcholine) to fuse with the
presynaptic membrane, releasing the neurotransmitters into the
synaptic cleft.
• Diffusion of Neurotransmitters:
• Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft, a small gap
between the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron and the
dendrites or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron.
• Binding to Receptors on Postsynaptic Membrane:
• Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic
membrane of the receiving neuron. These receptors are usually ligand-
gated ion channels.
• Ion Channel Activation:
• The binding of neurotransmitters to receptors opens ion channels,
allowing the flow of ions (such as sodium, potassium, or chloride)
across the postsynaptic membrane.
• Postsynaptic Potential (PSP):

• The flow of ions results in a change in the postsynaptic membrane potential,

generating a postsynaptic potential (PSP).
• Integration of Signals:
• If the sum of excitatory and inhibitory PSPs reaches the threshold at the axon
hillock, an action potential may be initiated in the postsynaptic neuron.
• Propagation of Action Potential:
• If an action potential is initiated, it travels down the postsynaptic neuron's
axon, continuing the transmission of the nerve impulse.
• Neurotransmitter Inactivation or Removal:
• Neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft are either broken down by enzymes,
reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron (reuptake), or diffuse away.
• Termination of Signal:
• The termination of neurotransmitter action helps prevent continuous
stimulation and allows for precise control of neural communication.
• This process ensures the unidirectional flow of information from the
presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron and is essential for the
communication and integration of signals within the nervous system.
•