UNIT II

BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR

Syllabus:

 Neuron: Structure and functions; Neural impulse; Synapse and Neurotransmitters

 Nervous system: Structure and Functions of Central nervous system and Peripheral
nervous system
 Methods of studying brain functions: invasion, lesion, ablation, chemical and
stimulation method
 Endocrine system: Functions and Effects: Pituitary, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Adrenal and
Gonads

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NEURON

Most of the cells of the nervous system are of two fundamentally different types: neurons and
glial cells. Neurons are cells that are specialized for the reception, conduction, and transmission
of electrochemical signals.

Neuron cell membrane: The neuron cell membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer or two layers
of fat molecules. Embedded in the lipid bilayer are numerous protein molecules that are the
basis of many of the cell membrane’s functional properties. Some membrane proteins are
channel proteins, through which certain molecules can pass; others are signal proteins, which
transfer a signal to the inside of the neuron when particular molecules bind to them on the
outside of the membrane.
Structure of neuron
Classes of neurons

a way of classifying neurons is based on the number of processes (projections) emanating from
their cell bodies.

A neuron with more than two processes extending from its cell body is classified as a
multipolar neuron; most neurons are multipolar.

A neuron with one process extending from its cell body is classified as a unipolar
neuron,

A neuron with two processes extending from its cell body is classified as a bipolar
neuron.

Neurons with a short axon or no axon at all are called interneurons; their function is to
integrate neural activity within a single brain structure, not to conduct signals from one
structure to another

GLIA

Neurons are not the only cells in the nervous system; there are about as many glial cells, or
glia. In the human brain, there are roughly equal numbers of neurons and glia .

Classes of glia

• Oligodendrocytes are glial cells with extensions that wrap around the axons of some
neurons of the central nervous system. These extensions are rich in myelin, a fatty
 insulating substance, and the myelin sheaths they form to increase the speed and
efficiency of axonal conduction.
• A similar function is performed in the peripheral nervous system by Schwann cells, a
second class of glia. only Schwann cells can guide axonal regeneration ( regrowth) after
damage.
• Microglia are smaller than other glial cells—thus their name. They respond to injury or
disease by multiplying, engulfing cellular debris or even entire cells.
• Astrocytes constitute a fourth class of glia. They are the largest glial cells, and they are
so named because they are star-shaped (Astron means “star”). They appear to play a
role in allowing the passage of some chemicals from the blood into CNS neurons and
in blocking other chemicals

Action potential

• An action potential is a brief but extremely large change in the polarity of an axon’s membrane,
lasting about 1 millisecond. In other words, an action potential is defined as a sudden, fast,
transitory, and propagating change of the resting membrane potential.
• The movement of an action potential along an axon is called a nerve impulse.
• Only neurons and muscle cells are capable of generating an action potential; that
property is called excitability.
• There are subthreshold, threshold, and suprathreshold stimuli.
o Subthreshold stimuli cannot cause an action potential.
o Threshold stimuli are of enough energy or potential to produce an action
potential (nerve impulse).
o Suprathreshold stimuli also produce an action potential, but their strength is
higher than the threshold stimuli.
• It is important to know that the action potential behaves upon the all-or-none law. This
means that any subthreshold stimulus will cause nothing, while threshold and
suprathreshold stimuli produce a full response of the excitable cell.
• The membrane potential is the difference in electrical charge between the inside and
the outside of a cell. This steady membrane potential of about −70 mV is called the
neuron’s resting potential. In its resting state, with the −70 mV charge built up across
its membrane, a neuron is said to be polarized.
• In neural tissue there is positively and negatively charged particles called ions. There
are many different kinds of ions in neurons, which also includes sodium ions (Na+)
 and potassium ions (K+). In resting neurons, there are more Na+ ions outside the cell
than inside and more K+ ions inside than outside. These unequal distributions of Na+
and K+ ions are maintained even though there are specialized pores, called ion
channels, in neural membranes through which ions can pass. Each type of ion channel
is specialized for the passage of particular ions (e.g., Na+ or K+).
• An action potential has three phases: depolarization, overshoot, repolarization.
o The threshold potential opens voltage-gated sodium channels and causes a large
influx of sodium ions. This phase is called the depolarization. Hypo
polarization which precedes the depolarization is the initial increase of the
membrane potential to the value of the threshold potential.
o During depolarization, the inside of the cell becomes more and more
electropositive, until the potential gets closer to the electrochemical equilibrium
for sodium of +61 mV. This phase of extreme positivity is the overshoot phase.

o After the overshoot, the sodium permeability suddenly decreases due to the
closing of its channels. The overshoot value of the cell potential opens voltage-
gated potassium channels, which causes a large potassium efflux, decreasing the
 cell’s electro-positivity. This phase is the repolarization phase, whose purpose
is to restore the resting membrane potential.
Repolarization always leads first to hyperpolarization, a state in which
the membrane potential is more negative than the default membrane potential.
But soon after that, the membrane establishes again the values of membrane
potential.
• There is a brief period of about 1 to 2 milliseconds after the initiation of an action
potential during which it is impossible to elicit a second one. This period is called the
absolute refractory period.

Synapse

• The three main parts of a synapse are an axon terminal, the membrane encasing the
tip of an adjacent dendritic spine, and the very small space separating these two
structures called the synaptic cleft.
• The membrane on the tip of the dendritic spine is known as the postsynaptic
membrane. The patch of dark material in the postsynaptic membrane consists largely
of protein molecules specialized for receiving chemical messages.
• There are some dark patches in the presynaptic membrane— the membrane of the
axon terminal—as well, but these patches are harder to see. They, too, consist largely
of protein molecules, most of them serving as channels and pumps, although some are
receptor sites.
• Within the axon terminal are many other specialized structures, including mitochondria
(the organelles that supply the cell’s energy needs) and round granules, called synaptic
vesicles, that contain the chemical neurotransmitter. Some axon terminals have larger
granules, called storage granules, which hold a number of synaptic vesicles.

Neurotransmitters

1. Conventional small-molecule neurotransmitters:

Amino acids

The four most widely studied amino acid neurotransmitters are glutamate, aspartate,
glycine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). The first three are common in the
proteins we consume, whereas GABA is synthesized by a simple modification of the
structure of glutamate. Glutamate is the most prevalent excitatory neurotransmitter in the
mammalian central nervous system. GABA is the most prevalent inhibitory
neurotransmitter

Monoamines

Each is synthesized from a single amino acid—hence the name monoamine (one amine).
They are subdivided into two groups,

Catecholamines

• Dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine

• Each is synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine.
• Neurons that release norepinephrine are called noradrenergic; those that
release epinephrine are called adrenergic.

Indolamine

serotonin (also called 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is synthesized from the

amino acid tryptophan

Acetylcholine

It is the neurotransmitter at neuromuscular junctions, at many of the synapses in the

autonomic nervous system, and at synapses in several parts of the central nervous system.
Neurons that release acetylcholine are said to be cholinergic.

2. Unconventional small-molecule neurotransmitters, which are because their

mechanisms of action are unusual.
• The soluble-gas neurotransmitters: include nitric oxide and carbon
monoxide.
• The endocannabinoids
3. large-molecule neurotransmitters: the neuropeptides.
• Neuropeptides are involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including pain
perception, mood regulation, appetite control, stress response, and social behavior.
• They are released by neurons in response to specific stimuli and bind to receptors on
target cells, transmitting signals that modulate various neural functions.
NERVOUS SYSTEM

The vertebrate nervous system comprises two divisions: the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system.

Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system is also composed of two divisions:

1. The somatic nervous system

(SNS) is the part of the PNS that interacts with the external environment. It is composed of
afferent nerves that carry sensory signals from the skin, skeletal muscles, joints, eyes, ears, and
so on, to the central nervous system and efferent nerves that carry motor signals from the central
nervous system to the skeletal muscles.
 2. The autonomic nervous system.

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the part of the peripheral nervous system that
regulates the body’s internal environment. It is composed of afferent nerves that carry
sensory signals from internal organs to the CNS and efferent nerves that carry motor signals
from the CNS to internal organs.

Sympathetic and parasympathetic system

• The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are two branches of the
autonomic nervous system, that work in opposition to regulate various bodily functions
and maintain homeostasis.
• The sympathetic nervous system is often referred to as the "fight or flight" system. It
is activated in response to stress, danger, or any situation that requires heightened
alertness and physical readiness. When activated, it prepares the body for action by
increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, redirecting blood flow to the muscles, and
releasing adrenaline and other stress hormones. These responses collectively prepare
the body to respond quickly to perceived threats.
• The parasympathetic nervous system is often referred to as the "rest and digest"
system. It counterbalances the sympathetic nervous system by promoting relaxation,
conservation of energy, and normal bodily functions during times of rest and recovery.
When activated, the parasympathetic nervous system slows down heart rate, constricts
pupils, and stimulates digestive processes.
The Central Nervous System

The central nervous system comprises two divisions: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain
is the part of the CNS located in the skull; the spinal cord is the part located in the spine.

Also protecting the CNS is the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which fills the subarachnoid space,
the central canal of the spinal cord, and the cerebral ventricles of the brain. The cerebrospinal
fluid supports and cushions the brain. Patients who have had some of their cerebrospinal fluid
drained away often suffer raging headaches and experience stabbing pain each time they jerk
their heads.

The brain is a finely tuned electrochemical organ whose function can be severely disturbed by
the introduction of certain kinds of chemicals. Fortunately, a mechanism impedes the passage
of many toxic substances from the blood into the brain: the blood–brain barrier. The blood–
brain barrier does not impede the passage of all large molecules. Some large molecules that are
critical for normal brain function (e.g., glucose) are actively transported through cerebral blood
vessel walls.

Anatomy Of the Central Nervous System

1. Spinal cord

The spinal cord comprises two different areas: an inner H-shaped core of gray matter and a
surrounding area of white matter. Gray matter is composed largely of cell bodies and
unmyelinated interneurons, whereas white matter is composed largely of myelinated axons. (It
is the myelin that gives the white matter its glossy white sheen.) The two dorsal arms of the
spinal gray matter are called the dorsal horns, and the two ventral arms are called the ventral
horns.

2. Brain

In the vertebrate embryo, the tissue that eventually develops into the CNS is recognizable as a
fluid-filled tube. The first indications of the developing brain are three swellings that occur at
the anterior end of this tube. These three swellings eventually develop into the adult forebrain,
midbrain, and hindbrain.

Although the capabilities of the human brain far exceed those of the brain of any other species,
humans share some basic functions, such as breathing, eating, and sleeping, with more
primitive animals. Not surprisingly, those activities are directed by a relatively primitive part
of the brain. A portion of the brain known as the central core is quite similar in all vertebrates
(species with backbones). The central core is sometimes referred to as the “old brain” because
its evolution can be traced back some 500 million years to primitive structures found in
nonhuman species.

Before birth, the initial three swellings in the neural tube become five. This occurs because the
forebrain swelling grows into two different swellings, and so does the hindbrain swell. From
anterior to posterior, the five swellings that compose the developing brain at birth is the
telencephalon, the diencephalon, the mesencephalon (Or midbrain), the metencephalon,
and the myelencephalon
In humans, as in other higher vertebrates, the telencephalon (The left and right cerebral
hemispheres) undergoes the greatest growth during development. The other four divisions of
the brain are often referred to collectively as the brain stem—the stem on which the cerebral
hemispheres sit. The myelencephalon is often referred to as the medulla.

Myelencephalon

• The myelencephalon (or medulla), the most posterior division of the brain, is composed
largely of tracts carrying signals between the rest of the brain and the body.
• Reticular formation: It is so named because of its netlike appearance (reticulum
means “little net”). Sometimes, the reticular formation is referred to as the reticular
activating system because parts of it seem to play a role in arousal. However, the
various nuclei of the reticular formation are involved in a variety of functions—
including sleep, attention, movement, the maintenance of muscle tone, and various
cardiac, circulatory, and respiratory reflexes.

Metencephalon

• The pons are one major division of the metencephalon; the other is the cerebellum.
• The cerebellum is the large, convoluted structure on the brain stem’s dorsal surface. It
is an important sensorimotor structure; cerebellar damage eliminates the ability to
precisely control one’s movements and to adapt them to changing conditions. However,
the fact that cerebellar damage also produces a variety of cognitive deficits (e.g.,
 deficits in decision making and in the use of language) suggests that the functions of
the cerebellum are not restricted to sensorimotor control.

Mesencephalon

• The two divisions of the mesencephalon are the tectum and the tegmentum. The
tectum (roof) is the dorsal surface of the midbrain. The tegmentum is the division of
the mesencephalon ventral to the tectum.
• The tegmentum contains three colourful structures of particular interest to
biopsychologists: the periaqueductal Gray, the substantia nigra, and the red
nucleus. periaqueductal Gray is of special interest because of its role in mediating the
analgesic (pain-reducing) effects of opioid drugs. The substantia nigra (black
substance) and the red nucleus is both important components of the sensorimotor
system.

Diencephalon

• The diencephalon is composed of two structures: the thalamus and the hypothalamus.
The thalamus is the large, two-lobed structure that constitutes the top of the brain stem.
The hypothalamus is located just below the anterior thalamus (hypo means “below”).
It plays an important role in the regulation of several motivated behaviors (e.g.,
eating, sleep, and sexual behavior). It exerts its effects in part by regulating the release
of hormones from the pituitary gland.

Telencephalon

The telencephalon, the largest division of the human brain mediates the brain’s most complex
functions. It initiates voluntary movement interprets sensory input, and mediates complex
cognitive processes such as learning, speaking, and problem-solving.

The cerebral hemispheres are covered by a layer of tissue called the cerebral cortex (cerebral
bark). Because the cerebral cortex is mainly composed of small, unmyelinated neurons, it is
Gray and is often referred to as gray matter. In contrast, the layer beneath the cortex is mainly
composed of large myelinated axons, which are white and often referred to as white matter.

The large furrows in a convoluted cortex are called Fissures. The central fissure and the
lateral fissure partially divide each hemisphere into four lobes: the frontal lobe, the parietal
lobe, the temporal lobe, and the occipital lobe.
1. We humans rely heavily on the analysis of visual input to guide our behavior, and the
occipital cortex and large areas of the adjacent cortex perform this function.
2. There are two large functional areas in each parietal lobe: The postcentral gyrus
analyses sensations from the body (e.g., touch), whereas the remaining areas of the
cortex in the posterior parts of the parietal lobes play roles in perceiving the location of
both objects and our bodies and in directing our attention.
3. The cortex of each temporal lobe has three general functional areas: The superior
temporal gyrus is involved in hearing and language, the inferior temporal cortex
identifies complex visual patterns, and the medial portion of the temporal cortex (which
is not visible from the usual side view) is important for certain kinds of memory.
4. Each frontal lobe has two distinct functional areas: The precentral gyrus and adjacent
frontal cortex have a motor function, whereas the frontal cortex anterior to the motor
cortex performs complex cognitive functions, such as planning response sequences,
evaluating the outcomes of potential patterns of behavior, and assessing the significance
of the behavior of others.
The limbic system is a circuit of midline structures that circle the thalamus (limbic means
“ring”). The limbic system is involved in the regulation of motivated behaviors—including the
four Fs of motivation: fleeing, feeding, fighting, and sexual behavior. Major structures of the
limbic system also include the amygdala. The hippocampus plays a role in certain forms of
memory, and the hypothalamus is involved in a variety of motivated behaviors such as eating,
sleep, and sexual behavior. The amygdala, on the other hand is involved in emotion,
particularly fear.

METHODS OF STUDYING BRAIN FUNCTIONS

Understanding the intricacies of brain function is a fundamental pursuit in neuroscience.

Researchers employ various methods to explore brain functions, shedding light on how
different regions contribute to behavior, cognition, and sensory perception.

Lesion Methods

• Aspiration lesions: When a lesion is to be made in an area of cortical tissue that is

accessible to the eyes and instruments of the surgeon, aspiration is frequently the
method of choice.
• Radio-frequency lesions: Small Subcortical lesions are commonly made by passing
radio-frequency current (high-frequency Current) through the target Tissue from the tip
 of a stereotaxically positioned Electrode. The heat from the current destroys the tissue.
The size and shape of the lesion are determined by the duration and intensity of the
current and the Configuration of the electrode tip.
• Knife cuts: Sectioning (cutting) is used to eliminate conduction in a nerve or tract. A
tiny, well-placed cut can unambiguously accomplish this task without producing
extensive damage to surrounding tissue.
• Reversible lesions: Reversible lesions are useful alternatives to destructive lesions.
Reversible lesions are methods for temporarily eliminating the activity in a particular
area of the brain while tests are being conducted. The advantage of reversible lesions is
that the same subjects can be repeatedly tested in both the lesion and control conditions.
Reversible lesions can be produced by cooling the target structure or by injecting an
anaesthetic (e.g., lidocaine) into it.

Stimulation Method

Brain stimulation techniques involve applying electrical or magnetic pulses to the brain to
either activate or inhibit neural activity. Two common forms are:

• Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): Involves using rapidly changing

magnetic fields to induce electrical currents in the brain. TMS is non-invasive and can
temporarily modulate brain activity, allowing researchers to infer causal relationships
between brain regions and behavior.
• Electrical Stimulation: Clues about the function of a neural structure can be obtained
by stimulating it electrically. Electrical brain stimulation is usually delivered across the
two tips of a bipolar electrode—two insulated wires wound tightly together and cut at
the end. Weak pulses of current produce an immediate increase in the firing of neurons
near the tip of the electrode.
Electrical stimulation of the brain is an important biopsychological research tool
because it often has behavioral effects, usually opposite to those produced by a lesion
to the same site. It can elicit a number of behavioral sequences, including eating,
drinking, attacking, copulating, and sleeping. The particular behavioral response
elicited depends on the location of the electrode tip, the parameters of the current, and
the test environment in which the stimulation is administered. Because electrical
stimulation of the brain is an invasive procedure, its use is usually limited to
 nonhumans. However, there are situations in which it is administered to conscious
human patients.

Invasive Electrophysiological Recording Methods

• An Intracellular Unit Recording: An intracellular microelectrode record the membrane

potential from one neuron as it fires.
• An Extracellular Unit Recording: An extracellular microelectrode records the electrical
disturbance that is created each time an adjacent neuron fires. In this example, each
vertical line represents an action potential.
• A Multiple-Unit Recording: A small electrode records the action potentials of many
nearby neurons. These are added up and plotted. In this example, firing in the area of
the electrode tip gradually declined and then suddenly increased.
• An Invasive EEG Recording: A large implanted electrode picks up general changes in
electrical brain activity. The EEG signals is not related to neural firing in any obvious
way.

Chemical methods

• Selective Chemical Lesions: In some cases, it is possible to make more selective

lesions by injecting neurotoxins (Neural poisons) that have an affinity for certain
components of the nervous system. There are many selective neurotoxins like kainic
acid or ibotenic acid , 6-hydroxydopamine, etc
• 2-deoxyglucose technique: It involves the use of a radioactive glucose analog called
2-deoxyglucose which is taken up by cells but cannot be further metabolized. The
technique takes advantage of the fact that neurons and brain regions that are more active
will take up more glucose to meet their energy demands. An animal (usually a rodent)
is injected with a radioactive form of 2-deoxyglucose. It is then exposed to a specific
task, sensory input, or stimulus. This could be anything from listening to a sound, seeing
a pattern, or performing a behavioral task.After a period of time, the animal is
euthanized, and its brain is processed for imaging. The distribution of radioactivity is
visualized using techniques like autoradiography, PET scans (Positron Emission
Tomography), or functional MRI (fMRI).This helps researchers understand the brain's
regional activity patterns in relation to various functions.
 • Cerebral Dialysis: Cerebral dialysis is a method of measuring the extracellular
concentration of specific neurochemicals in behaving animals (e.g., Amato, 2015)—
most other techniques for measuring neurochemicals require that the subjects be killed
so that tissue can be extracted. Cerebral dialysis involves the implantation in the brain
of a fine tube with a short semipermeable section. The semipermeable section is
positioned in the brain structure of interest so that extracellular chemicals from the
structure will diffuse into the tube. Once in the tube, they can be collected for freezing,
storage, and later analysis; or they can be carried in solution directly to a chromatograph
(a device for measuring the chemical constituents of liquids or gases).

Ablation method

Experimental ablation involves the drilling of holes in the skull of an animal and inserting an
electrode or a small tube called a cannula into the brain using a stereotactic apparatus. A brain
lesion can be created by conducting electricity through the electrode which damages the
targeted area of the brain. likewise, chemicals can be inserted in the cannula which could
possibly damage the area of interest. By comparing the prior behavior of the animal to after the
lesion, the researcher can predict the function of the damaged brain segment.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

There are two types of glands: exocrine glands and endocrine glands. Exocrine glands (e.g.,
sweat glands) release their chemicals into ducts, which carry them to their targets, mostly on
the surface of the body. The endocrine system is a chemical communication network that sends
messages throughout the body via the bloodstream. Its job is to secrete hormones, chemicals
that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or growth of the body.
Once released by an endocrine gland, a hormone travels via the circulatory system until it
reaches the targets on which it normally exerts its effect (e.g., other endocrine glands, and sites
in the nervous system).

It also influences—and is influenced by—the functioning of the nervous system. hormones are
like neurotransmitters, although their speed and mode of transmission are quite different.
Whereas neural messages are measured in thousandths of a second, hormonal communications
may take minutes to reach their destination. Furthermore, neural messages move through
neurons in specific lines (like a signal carried by wires strung along telephone poles), whereas
hormones travel throughout the body.

Although hormones are produced naturally by the endocrine system, the ingestion of artificial
hormones has proved to be both beneficial and potentially dangerous.

Pituitary

The pituitary gland is frequently referred to as the master gland because most of its hormones
are tropic hormones. Tropic hormones’ primary function is to influence the release of hormones
from other glands (tropic means “able to stimulate or change something”).

The pituitary gland is really two glands, the posterior pituitary and the anterior pituitary, which
fuse during the course of embryological development. It is the anterior pituitary that releases
tropic hormones; thus, it is the anterior pituitary in particular, rather than the pituitary in
general, that qualifies as the master gland.

The anterior lobe of your pituitary gland makes and releases the following hormones:
 • Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH or corticotrophin): ACTH plays a role in how
your body responds to stress. It stimulates your adrenal glands to produce cortisol (the
“stress hormone”), which has many functions, including regulating metabolism,
maintaining blood pressure, regulating blood glucose (blood sugar) levels and reducing
inflammation, among others.
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): FSH stimulates sperm production in people
assigned male at birth. FSH stimulates the ovaries to produce estrogen and plays a role
in egg development in people assigned female at birth. This is known as a
gonadotrophic hormone.
• Growth hormone (GH): In children, growth hormone stimulates growth. In other words,
it helps children grow taller. In adults, growth hormone helps maintain healthy muscles
and bones and impacts fat distribution. GH also impacts your metabolism (how your
body turns the food you eat into energy).
• Luteinizing hormone (LH): LH stimulates ovulation in people assigned female at birth
and testosterone production in people assigned male at birth. LH is also known as a
gonadotrophic hormone because of the role it plays in controlling the function of the
ovaries and testes, known as the gonads.
• Prolactin: Prolactin stimulates breast milk production (lactation) after giving birth. It
can affect fertility and sexual functions in adults.
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): TSH stimulates your thyroid to produce thyroid
hormones that manage your metabolism, energy levels and your nervous system.

The posterior lobe of your pituitary gland stores and releases the following hormones, but your
hypothalamus makes them:

• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or vasopressin): This hormone regulates the water balance
and sodium levels in your body.
• Oxytocin: Your hypothalamus makes oxytocin, and your pituitary gland stores and
releases it. In people assigned female at birth, oxytocin helps labor to progress during
childbirth by sending signals to their uterus to contract. It also causes breast milk to
flow and influences the bonding between parent and baby. In people assigned male at
birth, oxytocin plays a role in moving sperm.

The four main categories of issues related to your pituitary gland include: Pituitary adenomas,
Hypopituitarism, Hyperpituitarism and Empty sella syndrome.
Thyroid

The thyroid gland is located at the front of the neck just below the larynx. It is butterfly-shaped
and consists of two lobes located on either side of the windpipe (trachea). A normal thyroid
gland is not usually outwardly visible or able to be felt if finger pressure is applied to the neck.

The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate the body's metabolic rate, growth, and
development. It plays a role in controlling heart, muscle, and digestive function, brain
development, and bone maintenance. Its correct functioning depends on a good supply of
iodine from the diet.
The pituitary gland produces and sends out a hormone called thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH). TSH then tells the thyroid gland how much hormone to produce and secrete. TSH levels
in your blood are rising and falling depending on your body’s needs, to produce more or less
thyroid hormones.

The thyroid gland produces thyroxine (referred to as T4), which is a relatively inactive
prohormone, and the highly active hormone called triiodothyronine (referred to as T3).
Collectively, thyroxine and triiodothyronine are referred to as the thyroid hormones.

Parathyroid
Typically there are four parathyroid glands, a superior and inferior pair on the left and right
sides of the thyroid. They secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which stimulates bones to
release calcium into the blood when blood (calcium) levels are low.PTH also causes the kidneys
to reduce calcium secretion into urine to further elevate calcium levels in the blood.

Calcitonin is a hormone that plays a role in regulating the level of calcium in your blood by
decreasing it. The C-cells in your thyroid gland produce calcitonin.

Together, calcitonin and PTH act in complementary ways to maintain blood calcium
homeostasis, which is one of the most tightly controlled physiological parameters in the body.

Adrenal gland

Adrenal glands, also known as suprarenal glands, are small, triangle-shaped glands that are
located on top of each of your two kidneys. adrenal glands are composed of two parts: the
cortex (outer region) and the medulla (inner part). Each part is responsible for producing
different hormones.

Cortex

• Cortisol: Cortisol is a glucocorticoid hormone that plays several important roles. It

helps control your body’s use of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. It also suppresses
inflammation, regulates your blood pressure, increases blood sugar and helps control
your sleep-wake cycle. Your adrenal glands release cortisol during times of stress to
help your body get an energy boost and better handle an emergency situation.
• Aldosterone: Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid hormone that plays a central role in
regulating blood pressure and the levels of sodium and potassium (electrolytes) in your
blood. This means aldosterone helps regulate your blood pH (how acidic or basic it is)
by controlling the levels of electrolytes in your blood.
• DHEA and androgenic steroids: These hormones are weak male hormones, meaning
they don’t have much biologic impact. They are converted into female hormones
(estrogens) in the ovaries and into male hormones (androgens) in the testes. Androgens
are usually thought of as male hormones, but the female body naturally produces a
small number of androgens too.

Medulla

• Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine): These hormones are

known as the “fight or flight” hormones and are called catecholamines. Adrenaline and
noradrenaline are capable of increasing your heart rate and force of heart contractions,
increasing blood flow to your muscles and brain, and assisting in glucose metabolism.
They also control the squeezing of your blood vessels (vasoconstriction), which helps
maintain blood pressure. Your adrenal glands often release these hormones, like other
adrenal hormones, when you’re in physically and emotionally stressful situations.

Gonads

The Gonads are a part of the endocrine system, and gonads are known as the male and female
reproductive organs. Ovaries are the female gonad while testes are the male gonad, and they
are responsible for producing sex hormones in our bodies.
Functions of Gonads

The Gonads are the most vital hormone-secreting organ in the human body, the functions of
the gonads are given below:

• Secretion of sex hormones.

• Production of gametes.
• It facilitates cell division, especially meiosis.
• They are indirectly responsible for controlling the maturation of reproductive organs.
• They are responsible for the development of secondary sex characteristics in both males
and females.

Male Gonad Hormones

Androgens, also known as the ‘male hormone’ is responsible for the maturation of the male
reproductive system.

The Primary Male Gonads Hormones are –

• Testosterone: These hormones are essential for the growth of bone, muscle and body
hair and are produced by testes. It is also responsible for the growth of the penis,
deepening voice and appearance of facial hair.
• Inhibin: Essentially, inhibin obstructs the release of follicle-stimulating hormone or
FSH. It also regulates the development and regulation of sperm cells.
• Androstenedione: They are forerunners of oestrogen and testosterone and promote and
regulate their production within the body.

Female Gonadal Hormones

Androgens are also present in females and are produced in their ovaries, fat cells and adrenal
glands. They are responsible for stimulating hair growth in the underarms and pubic area in
females.

These are the Primary Female Gonads –

• Oestrogens: They aid in the development of the female reproductive system and
facilitate reproduction. For instance, oestrogens promote the growth of a uterus,
maturation of vagina, widening of breasts and pelvis.
 • Progesterone: They help to prepare a uterus for conception and are also responsible for
regulating it during the menstrual cycle. Progesterone also plays a key role in milk
production during pregnancy and even for stimulating glands.

Notably, both over and underproduction of gonadal hormones is often responsible for several
disorders in males and females. Typically, factors like long-term illness, inherited disease, poor
lifestyle choices, etc. are responsible for hypo or hyperproduction of gonadal hormones.