BIOPSYCHOLOGY

UNIT-1: ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF CELLS IN NERVOUS SYTEM:

The larger neurons have these components: dendrites, a soma (cell body), an axon, and
presynaptic terminals.

Dendrites are branching fibers that get narrower near their ends. (The term dendrite comes
from a Greek root word meaning “tree.” A dendrite branches like a tree.) The dendrite’s
surface is lined with specialized synaptic receptors, at which the dendrite receives
information from other neurons. The greater the surface area of a dendrite, the more
information it can receive. Some dendrites branch widely and therefore have a large surface
area. Many also contain dendritic spines, the short outgrowths that increase the surface area
available for synapses.

The cell body, or soma, contains the nucleus, ribosomes, and mitochondria. Most of the
metabolic work of the neuron occurs here. Like the dendrites, the cell body is covered with
synapses on its surface in many neurons.

The axon is a thin fiber of constant diameter, in most cases longer than the dendrites. (The
term axon comes from a Greek word meaning “axis.”) The axon is the neuron’s information
sender, conveying an impulse toward other neurons or an organ or muscle. Many vertebrate
axons are covered with an insulating material called a myelin sheath with interruptions
known as nodes of Ranvier. Invertebrate axons do not have myelin sheaths.

Presynaptic terminal is also known as an end bulb or bouton (French for “button”). This is
the point from which the axon releases chemicals that cross through the junction between one
neuron and the next.

Other terms associated with neurons are afferent, efferent, and intrinsic. An afferent axon
brings information into a structure; an efferent axon carries information away from a
structure. Every sensory neuron is an afferent to the rest of the nervous system, and every
motor neuron is an efferent from the nervous system. Within the nervous system, a given
neuron is an efferent from one structure and an afferent to another. (You can remember that
efferent starts with e as in exit; afferent starts with a as in admit). If a cell’s dendrites
and axon are entirely contained within a single structure, the cell is an interneuron or
intrinsic neuron of that structure.

 ACTION POTENTIAL

An action potential is defined as a sudden, fast, transitory, and propagating change of the
resting membrane potential. Only neurons and muscle cells are capable of generating an action
potential; that property is called the excitability.

Steps of action potential:

What causes the action potential? From an electrical aspect, it is caused by a stimulus with
certain value expressed in millivolts [mV]. Not all stimuli can cause an action potential.
Adequate stimulus must have a sufficient electrical value which will reduce the negativity of
the nerve cell to the threshold of the action potential. In this manner, there are subthreshold,
threshold, and suprathreshold stimuli. Subthreshold stimuli cannot cause an action potential.
Threshold stimuli are of enough energy or potential to produce an action potential (nerve
impulse). Suprathreshold stimuli also produce an action potential, but their strength is higher
than the threshold stimuli.

So, an action potential is generated when a stimulus changes the membrane potential to the
values of threshold potential. The threshold potential is usually around -50 to -55 mV. It is
important to know that the action potential behaves upon the all-or-none law. This means that
any subthreshold stimulus will cause nothing, while threshold and suprathreshold stimuli
produce a full response of the excitable cell.

Is an action potential different depending on whether it’s caused by threshold or suprathreshold

potential? The answer is no. The length and amplitude of an action potential are always the
same. However, increasing the stimulus strength causes an increase in the frequency of an
action potential. An action potential propagates along the nerve fiber without decreasing or
weakening of amplitude and length. In addition, after one action potential is generated, neurons
become refractory to stimuli for a certain period of time in which they cannot generate another
action potential.

Phases of action potential:

Action potential is a brief reversal of membrane potential where the membrane potential
changes from -70mV to +30mV. When the membrane potential of the axon hillock of a
neuron reaches threshold, a rapid change in membrane potential occurs in the form of an
action potential.

This moving change in membrane potential has three phases. First is depolarization, followed
by repolarization and a short period of hyperpolarization. These three events happen over just
a few milliseconds.

 The depolarization, also called the rising phase, is caused when positively charged
sodium ions (Na+) suddenly rush through open voltage-gated sodium channels into a
neuron. As additional sodium rushes in, the membrane potential actually reverses its
polarity. During this change of polarity the membrane actually develops a positive
value for a moment (+40 millivolts).
 The repolarization or falling phase is caused by the slow closing of sodium channels
and the opening of voltage-gated potassium channels. As a result, the membrane
permeability to sodium declines to resting levels. As the sodium ion entry declines,
the slow voltage-gated potassium channels open and potassium ions rush out of the
cell. This expulsion acts to restore the localized negative membrane potential of the
cell.
 Hyperpolarization is a phase where some potassium channels remain open and
sodium channels reset. A period of increased potassium permeability results in
excessive potassium efflux before the potassium channels close. This results in
hyperpolarization as seen in a slight dip following the spike.

The propagation of action potential is independent of stimulus strength but dependent on

refractory periods. The period from the opening of the sodium channels until the sodium
channels begin to reset is called the absolute refractory period. During this period, the neuron
cannot respond to another stimulus, no matter how strong.
  COMMUNICATION AT SYNAPSE

SYNAPSE:

The human brain is made up of approximately 86 billion neurons that “talk” to each other
using a combination of electrical and chemical (electrochemical) signals. 

The places where neurons connect and communicate with each other are called synapses.
Each neuron has anywhere between a few to hundreds of thousands of synaptic
connections, and these connections can be with itself, neighboring neurons, or neurons in
other regions of the brain. A synapse is made up of a presynaptic and postsynaptic
terminal. 

The presynaptic terminal is at the end of an axon and is the place where the electrical signal
(the action potential) is converted into a chemical signal (neurotransmitter release). The
postsynaptic terminal membrane is less than 50 nanometers away and contains specialized
receptors. The neurotransmitter rapidly (in microseconds) diffuses across the synaptic cleft
and binds to specific receptors. 

The type of neurotransmitter released from the presynaptic terminal and the specific
receptors present on the corresponding postsynaptic terminal is critical in determining the
quality and intensity of information transmitted by neurons. The postsynaptic neuron
integrates all the signals it receives to determine what it does next, for example, to fire an
action potential of its own or not. 
 Figure 1: structure of synapse.
There are 2 major types of synapses: 
● Electrical and 
● Chemical. 

Chemical synapses can be differentiated from electrical synapses by a few distinguishing

criteria: they use neurotransmitters to relay the signal and vesicles are used to store and
transport the neurotransmitter from the cell body to the terminal; furthermore, the pre - 
synaptic terminal will have a very active membrane and the post - synaptic membrane
consists of a thick cell membrane made up of many receptors. In between these 2 membranes
is a very distinct cleft (easily visualized with electron microscopy) and the chemical
neurotransmitter released must diffuse across this cleft to elicit a response in the receptive
neuron. Because of this, the synaptic delay, defined as the time it takes for current in the pre -
synaptic neuron to be transmitted to the post - synaptic neuron, is approximately 0.5 to 1.0
ms. 

This is different from the electrical synapse, which will typically consist of 2 membranes
located much closer to each other than in a chemical synapse. These membranes possess
channels formed by proteins known as connexins, which allow the direct passage of current
from one neuron to the next and do not rely on neurotransmitters. The synaptic delay is
significantly shorter in electrical synapses versus chemical synapses. 

Synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory, and use a variety of chemical molecules and
proteins. 
Excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials 

When a neurotransmitter binds to its receptor on a receiving cell, it causes ion channels to
open or close. This can produce a localized change in the membrane potential—voltage
across the membrane—of the receiving cell. 

● In some cases, the change makes the target cell more likely to fire its own action
potential. In this case, the shift in membrane potential is called an excitatory
postsynaptic potential, or EPSP. 
● In other cases, the change makes the target cell less likely to fire an action potential and is
called an inhibitory post - synaptic potential, or IPSP.
An EPSP is depolarizing: it makes the inside of the cell more positive, bringing the
membrane potential closer to its threshold for firing an action potential. Sometimes, a single
EPSP isn't large enough bring the neuron to threshold, but it can sum together with other
EPSPs to trigger an action potential. 

IPSPs have the opposite effect. That is, they tend to keep the membrane potential of the
postsynaptic neuron below threshold for firing an action potential. IPSPs are important
because they can counteract, or cancel out, the excitatory effect of EPSPs. 

Multiple types of neurotransmitters used in synaptic communication including, but not

limited to: 

● Acetylcholine (ACh): One of the most important neurotransmitters found in multiple

synapses in the body, including, but not limited to, the neuromuscular junction,
autonomic ganglia, caudate nucleus, and the limbic system. Generally, ACh is an
excitatory neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction and in the autonomic ganglia.
In the brain, Ach is synthesized in the basal nucleus of Meynert. 
● Norepinephrine (NE): The most important molecule in sympathetic nervous system
signaling, except for the sweat glands. In the brain, NE is mainly found in the locus
coeruleus and lateral tegmental nuclei. 
● Dopamine (DA): Dopamine signaling is generally inhibitory. There are three major
dopaminergic pathways in the brain, the nigrostriatal, mesolimbic, and mesocortical; each
 of which serve different roles. One of the most well-known disease states involving
dopamine is Parkinson's disease, where there is degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in
the substantia nigra. 
● Serotonin (5-HT): Produced from tryptophan using tryptophan hydroxylase, which is
mostly found in the brain (raphe nucleus) and the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Serotonin is
mostly known for its role as a regulatory neurotransmitter and is therefore implicated in
various mood states and diseases. 
● Other common neurotransmitters include other catecholamines, 
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glycine, and glutamic acid. 

The easiest approach to understanding synaptic transmission is to think of it as a stepwise

process beginning with the synthesis of the neurotransmitter and ending with its release. 

1. Synthesis: The neurotransmitter is synthesized in the cell body, where it will then be
transmitted down the microtubules of the axon to the pre - synaptic terminal, or it is
synthesized directly in the pre - synaptic terminal from recycled
neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitter is then stored in presynaptic vesicles until its
release. 
2. Release: The neurotransmitter is released in a regulated fashion from the pre -
synaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft. 
3. Receptor activation: The neurotransmitter binds to post - synaptic receptors and produces
a response in the post - synaptic neuron. 
4. Signal termination: The signal must be terminated by some mechanism, normally by the
elimination of excess neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft.

 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE (CEREBRUM)

Cerebrum is the largest part of your brain and handles conscious thoughts and actions.
Different areas within your cerebrum also have different responsibilities like language,
behavior, sensory processing and more. Areas of your brain also commonly work together on
the same tasks, helping you understand what’s happening in the world around you. The
cerebrum contains two hemispheres split by a central fissure and contains the major lobes of
the brain. It does not make up the entire brain, however. The cerebellum and brainstem sit
below the cerebrum and work alongside it to control the voluntary actions in the body.

FUNCTIONS:

Cerebrum handles much of your brain’s “conscious” actions. That means it’s
responsible for elements that require thinking, including:

Five senses: Your cerebrum manages and processes everything your senses take in. That
includes sight, sound, smell, taste and touch.

Language: Various parts of your cerebrum control your ability to read, write and speak.

Working memory: This is a type of short-term memory. An example of working memory is

when you remind yourself to pick up something from the grocery store.

Behavior and personality: Part of your cerebrum is your frontal lobe, which manages your
personality and behavior. It's the part of your brain that acts as a filter to stop you from doing
or saying things you might later regret.

Movement: Certain areas of your cerebrum send signals that tell your muscles what to do
when you need to use them.

Learning, logic and reasoning: Different areas of your cerebrum work together when you
need to learn a new skill, make a plan of action or puzzle out a problem.
HELPING WITH OTHER ORGANS:
Cerebrum works together with other parts of your brain, especially your cerebellum,
to help you with your daily activities. An example of this is picking up a pencil off a table.
Your cerebrum sends the signals to the muscles in your arms, and your cerebellum helps
calculate and control your movements, so your hand goes right to the pencil without missing.

Cerebellum not only manages conscious thoughts, but also planning and actions. That
includes when you decide to be physically active, choose what to eat for a meal or set aside
time to see a healthcare provider for any reason. Because of this, your cerebrum plays a
critical role in the health and well-being of your entire body.

ANATOMY

Cerebrum is inside of your skull, at the top and front of your head, and makes up the
largest part of your brain.
The outer surface of your cerebrum, your cerebral cortex, is mostly smooth but has many
wrinkles, making it look something like a walnut without its shell. It’s divided lengthwise
into two halves, the left and right hemisphere, by a deep groove. The two hemispheres
connect using a structure called the corpus callosum (corp-us cal-oh-sum), a collection of
nerve tissue that transmits signals from one side of your brain to the other.
The two hemispheres of your brain also have five main lobes each:

Frontal (at the front of your head). This lobe handles things like attention, behavior control
(your sense of what’s appropriate and what’s not), the ability to speak and certain types of
muscle movements.

Parietal (at the top of your head). This area handles touch, temperature and pain signals. It
also helps with how you see the world around you, especially judging distance from and the
size of objects. It also plays a role in processing sound, languages you speak, your ability to
use numbers and count, and how you organize information and make decisions.

Temporal (at the side of your head). This area helps you understand language when other
people are speaking. It also helps you recognize people and objects. This part also helps you
connect emotions with memories. Insular (deep inside of your brain, underneath your frontal,
parietal and temporal lobes). This part of your brain handles taste senses. It may also help
process certain types of emotions like compassion and empathy.

Occipital (at the back of your head). This lobe manages much of your eyes’ sensory input,
including the ability to see movement and colors.
These lobes each have two sections, divided by the central fissure in the brain.

As there are no other distinct separations in the brain, neuroscientists divide the lobes roughly
based on the major folds in the area.

Major folds include the:

Central sulcus: This divides the frontal and parietal lobes.

Precentral gyrus: This is a ridge just in front of the central sulcus, which neuroscientists use
to identify the primary motor cortex.
Postcentral gyrus: This is a ridge just behind the central sulcus, which neuroscientists use to
identify the primary somatosensory cortex.
Lateral sulcus: This divides the temporal lobe from the frontal and parietal lobes.
Superior temporal gyrus: This is a ridge below the lateral sulcus, where the brain first
receives and processes information.

A few structures that are part of your cerebrum stand out because they have very specific
purposes. These are:

Cerebral cortex: This is a thin layer of brain tissue on the surface of your cerebrum (the
word “cortex” comes from the Latin word for “bark,” as in the outer layer of a tree trunk).
Thalamus: This part of your brain acts like a relay station, sorting input from your senses
and sending it to various parts of your cerebrum (except for smell, which bypasses your
thalamus and goes directly to your cerebrum).
Hypothalamus: This part of your brain (whose name means “under the thalamus”) manages
functions in your nervous and endocrine systems, both of which help with controlling other
systems and processes throughout your body. An example of this is how your hypothalamus
helps manage your body’s temperature, heart rate and blood pressure.
Hippocampus: This structure with your temporal lobe helps manage and store memories in
areas of your cerebrum and fetches them when you need them.

 BASAL GANGLIA
The “basal ganglia” refers to a group of subcortical nuclei within the brain responsible
functions, emotional behaviours, and play an important role in reward andreinforcement,
addictive behaviours and habit formation. The basal ganglia are located at the base of the
forebrain (cerebrum) and have attracted attention in medicine for various disturbances that
appear with dysfunctions caused by diseases or trauma. Disruption of the basal ganglia
network forms the basis for several movement disorders.

For eg: Parkinson disease, Huntington Disease.

The basal ganglia are a group of structures near the center of your brain that form important
connections. These connections allow different areas of your brain to work together. The
basal ganglia manage the signals your brain sends that help you move your muscles.

FUNCTIONS OF BASAL GANGLIA:

The basal ganglia are best known for how they help your brain control your body’s
movements. However, ongoing research continues to uncover other ways that the basal
ganglia interact with other parts of your brain. Though experts continue to uncover more
about the inner workings of the basal ganglia, there’s much about them that remains
unknown.

Movement

The basal ganglia are a key part of the network of brain cells and nerves that control your
body’s voluntary movements. They can approve or reject movement signals that your brain
sends, filtering out unnecessary or incorrect signals. This lets you control certain muscles
without also using other muscles that are nearby.

If the basal ganglia approve a signal, it continues to the motor pathways, the nerves that
eventually carry the signal down your spinal cord and nerves to their destination muscle. If
they don’t approve the signal, they redirect it into an area where other brain cells dampen
those signals until they stop.The parts of your brain that process information from your
senses, namely sight, sound, smell, taste and touch, also send that information to your basal
ganglia. That sensory information helps the basal ganglia refine your movements further.

Decision-making
Another job of the basal ganglia is processing how you evaluate goals and risks. It also
processes signals that affect your emotions and your motivation. That means it also plays a
role in learning and forming habits, planning and carrying out tasks, and more.

Reward and addiction

Because the basal ganglia involve processes like emotions, motivation and habits, they also
affect how you learn and how you feel in response to things happening around you. That
includes feeling good (reward) about something you do, or feeling the need to avoid
something. Because of the involvement of your brain’s processes with rewards, habits and
motivation, the basal ganglia also have a role in illnesses like addiction.

ANATOMY:

The basal ganglia aren’t a single structure in your brain. Instead, they include several
structures, ganglia and nuclei alike, found at the center of your brain.

The parts of the basal ganglia include:

 Caudate nucleus.

 Globus pallidus.

 Putamen.

 Substantia nigra pars reticulata.

 Subthalamic nucleus.

 Ventral pallidum.

The basal ganglia are separate structures that link up in various ways. One way to think of the
basal ganglia is like a circuit board found in an electronic device. The ganglia form
connections and circuits with different parts of your brain, allowing them to send signals back
and forth. Some parts of the basal ganglia can also relay signals from different areas.

There are also different kinds of connections that happen throughout the basal ganglia. Some
of these connections are “excitatory,” meaning they cause something to happen. Others are
“inhibitory,” meaning they stop signals from continuing. Some connections trigger the
release of other neurotransmitter chemicals, which your body uses for communication and
activating or deactivating certain processes and systems.

PROBLEMS AFFECTING BASAL GANGLIA:

The symptoms that can happen with conditions that affect the basal ganglia depend strongly
on the type of condition. Movement disorders like Parkinson’s disease or Huntington’s
disease will have different effects from carbon monoxide poisoning or heavy metal
poisoning.

 Balance and coordination problems.

 Muscle weakness and spasms.

 Shakiness and tremors.

 Vision problems.

 Slurred speech.

 THALAMUS

Thalamus is an egg-shaped structure in the middle of your brain. It’s known as a relay station
of all incoming motor (movement) and sensory information — hearing, taste, sight and touch
(but not smell) — from your body to your brain. Like a relay or train station, all information
must first pass through your thalamus before being routed or directed to its destination in
your brain’s cerebral cortex (the outermost layer of your brain) for further processing and
interpretation.

FUNCTIONS OF THALAMUS:

Thalamus has many functions, including:

 Relaying sensory information. Taking in information, in the form of nerve signals, from all
of your senses (taste, touch, hearing, seeing), except smell, into your brain.
Each sensory function has a thalamic nucleus that receives, processes and transmits the
information to its related area within the cerebral cortex.

 Relaying motor (movement) information. Similar to sensory information, motor pathways

all pass through the thalamus.

 Prioritizing attention.  The thalamus helps decide what to focus on among the vast amount
of information that it receives.

 Role in consciousness. The thalamus plays a role in keeping you awake and alert.

 Role in thinking (cognition) and memory. The thalamus is connected with structures of

your limbic system, which is involved in processing and regulating emotions, formation and
storage of memories, sexual arousal and learning. Thalamus also contributes to perception
and plays a role in sleep and wakefulness.

ANATOMY:

Thalamus lies above your brainstem in the middle of your brain. Although it may look like a
single structure, you actually have two, side-by-side thalami, one in each hemisphere (side) of
your brain. Being located in this central area — like the central hub on a bike wheel —
allows nerve fibres connections (like the bike wheel’s spokes) to reach all areas of your
cerebral cortex (the outer layer of your brain).

Technically, thalamus is part of an area of the brain called the diencephalon, which includes
the hypothalamus, subthalamus and epithalamus.

CONDITION:

Thalamus is a central relay station for receiving incoming sensory and motor information.
Your thalamus then sends this information to other parts of your brain. So, damage to your
thalamus can affect many functions.
Symptoms of damage to your thalamus include:

 Memory loss (amnesia).

 Lack of interest or enthusiasm (apathy).

 Loss of ability to understand language or speak (aphasia).

 Trouble with attention, loss of alertness.

 Trouble processing sensory information.

 Impaired movement.

 Sleepiness.

 Chronic pain.

Damage to your thalamus can result in:

 Unconsciousness and even coma.

 Sleep disorders, such as insomnia and fatal familial insomnia (inability to sleep, leading to

death).

 Thalamic aphasia (jumbled words, meaningless speech).

 Movement disorders, including tremors.

 Pain syndromes.

 Vision problems, including vision loss or light sensitivity.

 Thalamic pain syndrome (tingling or burning pain).

The main causes of damage to your thalamus include:

 Stroke in your thalamus.

 Tumors in your thalamus.

 HYPOTHALAMUS

The hypothalamus is a structure deep within your brain. It’s the main link between your
endocrine system and your nervous system. Your hypothalamus keeps your body balanced in
a stable state called homeostasis.

Hypothalamus helps manage your: Body temperature, Blood pressure, Hunger and
thirst,Sense of fullness when eating, Mood, Sex drive, Sleep.

FUNCTION:

The hypothalamus contains several nuclei, each with specific functions. Together, these
nuclei enable the small hypothalamus to modulate a broad range of body functions. The
major functions of the hypothalamus include:

CONTROL OF THE PITUITARY GLAND-

The hypothalamus modulates the release of pituitary hormones via two groups of neurons:
the parvocellular (small) neurons and the magnocellular (large) neurons. These hormones
modulate the release of thyrothropin, growth hormone, prolactin, follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH) or luteinizing hormone (LH), and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). The
magnocellular neurons form the supraopticohypophyseal tract, which arises from the
supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei and carries ADH and oxytocin to the posterior pituitary.

REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE

The preoptic region and anterior hypothalamic nuclei contain temperature-sensitive (thermo-
sensitive) neurons that detect and respond to slight temperature changes in the core
temperature of the body, with input from peripheral thermo-sensitive neurons located in the
skin. Both nuclei are believed to initiate heat loss via mechanisms such as increasing blood
flow into the skin, activating sweat glands and inhibiting heat-generating mechanisms by
theposterior hypothalamus in order to maintain body temperature during temperature
elevations.
The posterior hypothalamus on the other hand promotes heat conservation and heat
production mechanisms such as piloerection (goose bumps) and the vasoconstriction of
cutaneous vessels, thyroid hormone mediated increase in metabolism and shivering.

CONTROL OF FOOD INTAKE

The arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus is involved in the integration of feeding related
input from both the lateral and ventromedial nuclei, which together provide an appetite set
point, a baseline for food intake. Animal experiments, involving either simulation or
destruction of both nuclei in the past, led to the designation of the lateral hypothalamic
nucleus as the ‘feeding center’ and the ventromedial nucleus as the ‘satiety center’. However,
it is now known that the paraventricular nucleus is also involved in the control of food intake.
The arcuate nucleus also senses changes in glucose levels as well as other secreted peptides
such as ghrelin from gastric sections that stimulates food intake and leptin from adipose
tissues that suppresses feeding.

CONTROL OF FLUID INTAKE

The medial preoptic nucleus is the main center responsible for controlling the intake of water.
It does this by integrating input from peripheral receptors on parameters such as blood
volume and pressure, and levels of angiotensin hormone. This information is then relayed to
the cerebral cortex, which in turn initiates responses such as sensation of thirst to correct any
deficits.

CONTROL OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The hypothalamus receives visceral sensory input from the ascending sensory system as well
as information related to emotions from the limbic system. Stimulation of the anterior
(preoptic and anterior nucleus) and medial hypothalamus produces parasympathetic effects
such as slowing of the heart, constriction of the pupil and salivary secretion. On the other
hand, stimulation of the posterior and lateral hypothalamus results in sympathetic effects such
as increased in heart rate and blood pressure, pupillary dilation. Nerve fibers from both
regions project to autonomic nuclei within the brainstem and spinal cord to maintain
homeostasis.

CONTROL OF STRESS, EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION AND AGGRESSION

The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus receives inputs from various brainstem
structures and from the limbic system in response to various forms of stress (psychological,
physical, or physiologic) by initiating a restorative mechanism via the hypothalamus-
pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.

The limbic system receives, processes and relays emotional input to the hypothalamus. The
hypothalamus through its connections with the autonomic nervous system initiates
appropriate visceral responses such as changes in heart rate and blood pressure mediated by
the sympathetic nervous system and associated changes in behavior. Aggressive behavior is
associated with the stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus.

CONTROL OF SLEEP AND WAKING

Another important function of the hypothalamus is the regulation of both arousal and sleep-
wake cycles by the suprachiasmatic and tuberomammillary nuclei. The suprachiasmatic
nucleus receives direct input from the retina and plays a role in establishing a normal sleep-
wake cycle through its influence on endocrine, autonomic and behavioral functions, and
connections with the pineal gland. The tuberomammillary nucleus, on the other hand,
contains histaminergic neurons which project extensively to various gray matter regions of
the brain and spinal cord and play an important role in arousal.

A small group of neurons in the lateral hypothalamus release a peptide called orexin which
activates the tuberomammillary nucleus in the wakestate. Hypothalamic orexin production
decreases at night and contributes to sleep promotion.

CONTROL OF SEXUAL AROUSAL

The anterior hypothalamus contains a group of neurons called the third interstitial nucleus.
This nucleus lies within the medial part of the preoptic nucleus and has been implicated in
sexual arousal. It exhibits sexual dimorphism and is about twice as large in males than in
females.

Neurons of this nucleus have abundant androgen receptors and are activated by testosterone
in circulation. The ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus in females also contains
estrogen-rich neurons and has been implicated in sexual responses.
CONTROL OF MEMORY

The mammillary bodies, fornix, mammillothalamic tract and the anterior nucleus of the
thalamus form a limbic (or Papez) circuit which is involved in memory. Additionally, input
from the hippocampus, which is a region of learning and memory, plays a role in the
influence of memories on emotion.

HOW DOES THE HYPOTHALAMUS INTERACT WITH THE PITUITARY GLAND?

Your pituitary gland sits just below yourhypothalamus. It consists of two lobes, called

the anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary. Your hypothalamus is connected to and

communicates with your anterior lobe through a network of blood vessels. Hypothalamus
sends signals in the form of releasing hormones to tell the anterior.

It communicates with your posterior lobe by tissue called the pituitary stalk and release
(secrete) its hormones through it.

ANTERIOR PITUITARY

Growth hormone releasing hormone:

Growth hormone (GH):Goes directly to your long bones and the big muscles to stimulate
growth.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone(GnRH): Follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH) and luteinizing

hormone (LH):Travels to gonads. In males, LH causes the testes to make testosterone; FSH
controls sperm production. In females, LH and FSH control the menstrual cycle and trigger
the release of an egg from the ovary (ovulation).

Corticotropin-releasing hormone(CRH): Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): Travels to

your adrenal glands. Causes youe adrenal glands to release the stress hormone cortisol and
regulate metabolism and immune response.

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone(TRH): Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Travels to your

thyroid gland. Causes your thyroid to release thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).
Dopamine (inhibition):Prolactin (PRL): Goes directly tobreast tissue to produce breast milk

POSTERIOR PITUITARY

Your hypothalamus makes two hormones but stores them in the posterior pituitary. When
these hormones are needed, your hypothalamus sends a signal to the posterior pituitary to
release them into the bloodstream. These two hormones are:

Oxytocin: This hormone assists in the birthing process(stimulates uterine muscle contraction)
and in lactation (release of breast milk). It’s also thought to play a role in human bonding,
sexual arousal, trust, recognition, sleep cycle and feelings of well-being.

Vasopressin: This hormone, also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH),regulates control of your
body’s water/urine volume and blood pressure.

WHERE IS THE HYPOTHALAMUS LOCATED?

Your hypothalamus, which is about the size of an almond, is located below the thalamus and
above your pituitary gland. It sits directly above the brainstem at the base of your brain.

WHAT ARE HYPOTHALAMUS DISORDERS?

Diabetes insipidus. If the hypothalamus does not produce and release enough vasopressin, the
kidneys can remove too much water. This causes increased urination and thirst.

Prader-Willi syndrome. This is a rare, inherited disorder that causes the hypothalamus to not
register when someone is full after eating. People with Prader-Willi syndrome have a
constant urge to eat, increasing their risk of obesity.
Hypopituitarism. This disorder occurs when the pituitary gland does not produce enough
hormones. While it’s usually caused by damage to the pituitary gland, hypothalamic
dysfunction can also cause it. Many hormones produced by the hypothalamus directly affect
those produced by the pituitary gland.

Gigantism. Gigantism occurs when the pituitary gland produces too much growth hormone. It
typically affects children and adolescents. The primary symptom is a tall stature, but it can
also result in symptoms such as a head that’s larger than expected or large hands and feet. A
pituitary tumor is the most common cause of gigantism and acromegaly, a similar condition.

Acromegaly. Acromegaly is also caused by the pituitary gland producing excess growth
hormone. It’s similar to gigantism, except it typically affects adults. Because the growth
plates have fused by adulthood, acromegaly does not affect a person’s height. It can result in
symptoms such as large hands and feet or enlarged facial features (like the nose, lips, or
tongue).

 BRAINSTEM
Brainstem consists of three parts:

Midbrain: The top part of the brainstem is crucial for regulating eye movements.

Pons: The middle portion of the brainstem coordinates facial movements, hearing and
balance.
Medulla oblongata: The bottom part of the brainstem helps regulate your breathing, heart
rhythms, blood pressure and swallowing.

Brainstem also contains your reticular activating system (RAS). The RAS is a network of
neurons (cells that carry electrical signals and chemicals through your brain). Your RAS
controls your sleep and wake cycles. It also helps you stay alert and attentive to your
surroundings.

Where is the brainstem located?

Brainstem is near the bottom of the brain, at the back of the skull. It looks like a flower stalk
or stem. It connects your brain to your spinal cord.
MEDULLA OBLANGATA 

Medulla oblongata, also called medulla, the lowest part of the brain and the lowest portion
of the  brainstem. The medulla oblongata is connected by the pons to the midbrain and is
continuous posteriorly with the spinal cord, with which it merges at the opening (foramen
magnum) at the  base of the skull. The medulla oblongata plays a critical role in transmitting
signals between the  spinal cord and the higher parts of the brain and in controlling
autonomic activities, such as  heartbeat and respiration. 

The medulla is divided into two main parts: the ventral medulla (the frontal portion) and the
dorsal  medulla (the rear portion; also known as the tegmentum). The ventral medulla
contains a pair of  triangular structures called pyramids, within which lie the pyramidal tracts.
The pyramidal tracts  are made up of the corticospinal tract (running from the cerebral cortex
to the spinal cord) and the  corticobulbar tract (running from the motor cortex of the frontal
lobe to the cranial nerves in the  brainstem). In their descent through the lower portion of the
medulla (immediately above the  junction with the spinal cord), the vast majority (80 to 90
percent) of corticospinal tracts cross,  forming the point known as the decussation of the
pyramids. The ventral medulla also houses  another set of paired structures, the olivary
bodies, which are located laterally on the pyramids. 

FUNCTIONS OF MEDULLA 

• Manages heart, circulation and breathing. Your medulla is where your cardiovascular and 
respiratory systems link together into a united system that controls your heart rate, 
breathing, blood pressure and more. 
• Manages other automatic processes. These are things that your body often does without 
you having to think about them. Some examples include coughing, sneezing,
swallowing,  vomiting and maintaining your balance. 
• Nerve connections. The vast majority of major nerves converge at your spine, carrying 
signals to and from your brain. That means those signals must pass through your
medulla.  Four of your 12 cranial nerves (which connect areas of your throat and tongue
directly to  your brain) pass through your medulla. 
• Crossover point. your medulla is the location of a region called “the pyramids,” where
most  of the movement-related nerves in your body crisscross. That crossover is why one
side of  your brain almost always controls parts on the opposite side of your body. 
The medulla and cranial nerves 
Your cranial nerves that pass through your medulla include the following: 

• Cranial Nerve (CN) IX: Your ninth cranial nerve handles many of the functions of your 
mouth. These include activating the glands that make saliva (spit) and your ability to
taste  and feel things inside of your mouth. It also controls your gag reflex, which keeps
you from  accidentally choking on objects.
• CN X: Your 10th cranial nerve, known as the vagus nerve, is one of the most important 
nerves in your body. It connects to all the major organs from your neck to the top part of 
your colon, transmitting signals for your autonomic nervous system.  

These are signals you don’t think about, and they manage your heart rate, intestinal
movements  and more. This nerve also carries signals for muscles of your larynx (voice box)
and the muscles  you use to swallow. 

• CN XI: Your 11th cranial nerve controls muscles on your neck and upper back. These 
muscles help you turn your head or shrug your shoulders. 
• CN XII: Your 12th cranial nerve controls the muscles that you use to stick out your
tongue.  That makes this nerve vital for your ability to speak and swallow. 

common conditions and disorders that affect the medulla 

• Aneurysms
• Cancer
• Concussion and traumatic brain injuries 
• Strokes or transient ischemic attacks (TIAs)
• Other rare conditions include Moebius syndrome, multiple system atrophy and progressive
supranuclear palsy. 
• Wallenberg syndrome. Also known as lateral medullary syndrome, this happens with an 
interruption in blood flow to a side area of your medulla that damages that area. This is
the  most common type of stroke that affects your medulla. 
• Dejerine syndrome. Also known as medial medullary syndrome, this happens when a 
stroke cuts off blood flow to the middle of your medulla, affecting the pyramids region 
where nerves crisscross. 
 • Bilateral medial medullary syndrome. This is an uncommon condition that combines
the  effects of Dejerine syndrome and Wallenberg syndrome, affecting both sides of your
body. • Reinhold syndrome. This condition, also known as hemimedullary syndrome, is 
extremely rare. It includes symptoms of both Wallenberg and Dejerine syndromes, but
the  Wallenberg syndrome is only on one side. 
• Babinski-Nageotte and Cestan-Chenais syndrome. These are incredibly rare conditions 
that combine some of the effects of one-sided Wallenberg syndrome and Reinhold 
syndrome. 

PONS 

Pons, portion of the brainstem lying above the medulla oblongata and below the cerebellum
and  the cavity of the fourth ventricle. The pons is a broad horseshoe-shaped mass of
transverse nerve  fibres that connect the medulla with the cerebellum. It is also the point of
origin or termination for  four of the cranial nerves that transfer sensory information and
motor impulses to and from the 
facial region and the brain. The pons also serves as a pathway for nerve fibres connecting the 
cerebral cortex with the cerebellum. 

The pons, while involved in the regulation of functions carried out by the cranial nerves it
houses,  works together with the medulla oblongata to serve an especially critical role in
generating the  respiratory rhythm of breathing. Active functioning of the pons may also be
fundamental to rapid  eye movement (REM) sleep. 

FUNCTIONS:

• It influences your sleep cycle. Your pons sets your body’s level of alertness when you 
wake up. 
• It manages pain signals. Your pons relays and regulates the signals that give you the 
sensation of pain from anywhere in your body below your neck. 
• It works with other brain structures. Your pons is a key connection point to your 
cerebellum, another key part of your brain that handles balance and movement. It also 
works cooperatively with other parts of your brainstem that manage your breathing. 

Cranial nerve connections:

In addition, your pons contains several key junctions for four of your 12 cranial nerves,
which are  nerves that directly connect to your brain. Your cranial nerves (which use Roman
numerals for  their numbering) that connect to the pons are: 

• Trigeminal nerve (Cranial Nerve V): Your trigeminal (try-gem-in-all) nerve provides
the  sense of touch and pain for your face and controls the muscles you use for chewing. •
Abducens nerve (CN VI): Your abducens nerve is one of the muscles that control eye 
movement. Damage to this nerve can cause double vision (diplopia). 
• Facial nerve (CN VII): This nerve controls most of your facial expressions and your sense 
of taste from the front of your tongue. 
• Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII): Your vestibulocochlear nerve branches into your 
vestibular nerve and cochlear nerve. Your vestibular nerve gives you your sense of
balance.  Your cochlear nerve gives you your sense of hearing. 

common conditions and disorders that affect the pons? 

Many of the conditions that affect your brain can affect your pons. Some
conditions  affect your pons specifically. Examples include (in alphabetical
order): 

• Brain tumors (including cancer). 

• Central pontine myelinolysis. 
• Concussions and other traumatic brain injuries. 
• Congenital disorders (conditions you have at birth), including genetic 
disorders (conditions you inherited from one or both parents). 
• Heavy metal poisoning or other toxins. 
• Immune and inflammatory conditions (such as multiple sclerosis).
• Infections (these can happen because of bacteria, viruses, parasites and
fungi). • Locked-in syndrome from trauma or stroke. 
• Multiple system atrophy. 
• Olivopontocerebellar atrophy. 

• Stroke.
 MIDBRAIN

Midbrain, also called mesencephalon, is a part of the central nervous system. It is located

below  cerebral cortex and at the top of the brainstem. This is composed of the tectum and
tegmentum. The midbrain serves important functions in motor movement, particularly
movements of the eye, and in auditory and visual processing. It is located within
the brainstem and between the two other developmental regions of the brain,
the forebrain and the hindbrain; compared with those regions, the midbrain is relatively
small.
The tectum (from Latin for “roof”) makes up the rear portion of the midbrain and is formed
by two paired rounded swellings, the superior and inferior colliculi. The superior
colliculus receives input from the retina and the visual cortex and participates in a variety of
visual reflexes, particularly the tracking of objects in the visual field. The inferior
colliculus receives both crossed and uncrossed auditory fibres and projects upon the medial
geniculate body, the auditory relay nucleus of the thalamus.
The tegmentum is located in front of the tectum. It consists of fibre tracts and three regions
distinguished by their colour—the red nucleus, the periaqueductal gray, and the substantia
nigra. 

The red nucleus is a large structure located centrally within the tegmentum that is involved in
the coordination of sensorimotor information. 

The periaqueductal gray region of the tegmentum is made up of gray matter (neural tissue
with relatively few axons covered in myelin) and surrounds the cerebral aqueduct, a short
canal that runs between the third and fourth ventricles of the brain. The periaqueductal gray
appears to function primarily in pain suppression, a result of its naturally high concentrations
of endorphins.

The substantia nigra is a large pigmented cluster of neurons that consists of two parts,
the pars reticulata and the pars compacta. Cells of the pars compacta contain the dark
pigment melanin; these cells synthesize dopamine and project to either the caudate nucleus or
the putamen, both of which are structures of the basal ganglia and are involved in mediating
movement and motor coordination. The neurons in turn project to the cells of the pars
reticulata, which, by projecting fibres to the thalamus, are part of the output system of the
corpus striatum.

Tegmentum
The structures within the tegmentum serve these specific functions:

Reticular formation: This highly diverse and integrative area contains a network of nuclei
responsible for many vital functions including arousal, consciousness, sleep-wake cycles,
coordination of certain movements, and cardiovascular control.

Periaqueductal gray (PAG) matter: This area plays a primary role in processing pain
signals, autonomic function, and behavioral responses to fear and anxiety. Recently, this
structure has been linked to controlling the defensive reactions associated with post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD). 2

Cranial nerve nuclei: Oculomotor nerve nuclei are responsible for controlling the pupil and
most eye movements. The trochlear nerve nuclei innervate the superior oblique muscle of the
eye, which abducts, depresses, and internally rotates the eye. 

Spinothalamic tract: This major nerve pathway carries information about pain and
temperature sensation from the body to the thalamus of the brain.

Corticospinal tract: This major nerve pathway carries movement-related information from
the brain to the spinal cord.

Red nucleus: This region is involved in motor coordination. It is called the "red" nucleus
because of its pinkish colour, resulting from the presence of iron.

Substantia nigra: This area contains nerve cells that make the neurotransmitter (brain
chemical) dopamine. It serves as a relay station for nerve signals responsible for controlling
movement.
Ventral tegmental area (VTA): This structure contains dopamine-producing cell bodies and
plays a key role in the reward system.

Tectum
Nerve cells within the superior colliculi process vision signals from the retina of the
eye before channeling them on to the occipital lobe located at the back of the head. The
superior colliculi of the midbrain is also responsible for generating eye movements and neck
muscle activity.

The inferior colliculi is responsible for processing auditory (hearing) signals before they are
channelled through the thalamus and eventually to the primary auditory cortex in the
temporal lobe. In addition to sound localization, the inferior colliculus is responsible for the
following:

Associated Conditions
The midbrain may be affected by a number of different pathological processes
including stroke, tumour, a demyelinating process, infection, or a neurodegenerative disease.

 CEREBELLUM

The cerebellum, which means “little brain,” is a part of the brain involved in coordinating
movement and balance. It can also play a role in cognitive functions like language and
attention.

ANATOMY :

The cerebellum can be found just below your cerebrum and behind the upper portion of your
brain stem. This is the area at the base of your skull where your head meets your neck.

The cerebellum is divided up into three different parts called lobes. These lobes are separated
from each other by deep grooves called fissures. There are two major components of the
cerebellum:

 Cerebellar cortex: This is a layer of thin, heavily folded tissue that contains most of
the nerve cells in the cerebellum.
  Cerebellar nuclei: Found deep within the cerebellum, the nerve cells of the
cerebellar nuclei are primarily involved in sending information from the cerebellum.

The cerebellum only accounts for about 10 percent of your brain’s total size. Although it’s
much smaller than the cerebrum, it contains significantly more nerve cells.

FUNCTION OF CEREBELLUM:

Your cerebellum receives input from other areas of your nervous system, including:

 the cerebrum

 brain stem

 spinal cord

It then uses this information to regulate and coordinate voluntary movements. Voluntary
movements are movements that you can control, such as walking or throwing a baseball.

In addition to voluntary movements, the cerebellum is also involved in coordination of the

following:

 Balance and posture: Your cerebellum works with sensory input from your eyes and
ears to keep you upright and steady.

 Motor learning: This involves the learning and fine-tuning of various movements.

Examples include the specific, precise movements used for writing or for riding a
bicycle.

 Speech: The cerebellum is also involved in the movements associated with speaking.

The cerebellum may also play a role in other cognitive functions. Research into this area is
ongoing, and there’s still so much more to learn. From what we know so far, the cerebellum’s
functions can include:

 language

 processing of emotions
  attention

 pleasure or reward response

 fear response

CONDITIONS:

Disruption of the cerebellum or its connections to other parts of the nervous system can
happen in a variety of ways. For instance, the cerebellum can sustain damage due to:

 a head injury

 stroke

 a brain tumor

 autoimmune conditions, such as multiple sclerosis

 neurodegenerative conditions, such as Parkinson’s disease or Huntington’s disease

 infections

 some medications, such as benzodiazepines or barbiturates

 alcohol use disorder

 heavy metal poisoning, such as due to lead or mercury

When the cerebellum is damaged, movement and balance can be affected. You may have
trouble trying to move in a coordinated way. Or you may have difficulty with balance, or
experience involuntary muscle contractions. Damage to the cerebellum can result in
conditions such as:

 Ataxia: Ataxia is characterized by uncoordinated movement, trouble with fine motor

tasks, and changes in speech.

 Dystonia: With dystonia, your muscles contract, or spasm, involuntarily. These

spasms can occur in any part of the body and lead to twisting or repetitive motions.

 Tremors: Tremors are involuntary muscle contractions that occur in a rhythmic

manner. This leads to a shaking movement that can disrupt fine motor tasks and
speech.
  Vertigo: Vertigo is the sensation of spinning. You may feel as if you’re spinning or
that your surroundings are spinning. Many cases of vertigo are caused by inner
ear problems. But there are instances where vertigo can be caused by damage to the
cerebellum or brain stem.

Imaging studies of the brain have given us more insight into the cerebellum’s connections to
other areas of the brain. While research is ongoing, cerebellar dysfunction may also play a
role in some of the following conditions:

 Autism spectrum disorder (ASD): ASD is a developmental condition characterized

by impairments in communication and social interaction as well as repetitive or
restricted behaviors.

 Dyslexia: Dyslexia is a learning disorder in which a person has difficulty reading,

spelling, or writing due to trouble processing how speech sounds relate to words or
parts of words.

 Anxiety disorders: Anxiety disorders comprise a group of emotional disorders

involving excessive levels of anxiety or fear.

 Schizophrenia: Schizophrenia is a mental illness that has a variety of symptoms,

such as hallucinations or delusions, a lack of emotion, and disorganized speech and
movement.

 SPINAL CORD

The Spinal Cord is a long, fragile tube-like structure that begins at the end of the Brainstem
(Medulla Oblongata) and continues down almost to the bottom of the spine. The Spinal Cord
consists of nerves that carry incoming and outgoing messages between the brain and the rest
of the body. These nerve signals help us feel sensations and move your body. Any damage to
our spinal cord can affect your movement or function. Spinal Cord is one of the main parts of
the Nervous System. The length of Spinal Cord is about 45cm in men and 43cm in women.
The diameter is about 1cm to 1.5cm. 
Like the brain, the spinal cord is also covered by Meninges. The Spinal Cord and Meninges
are contained in the Spinal Canal, which runs through the centre of the spine (or Vertebral
Column). Like the brain, the Spinal Cord contains Gray Matter and White Matter. 

What are the functions of Spinal Cord? 

Our spinal cord’s main purpose is to carry nerve signals throughout your body. These nerve
messages have three crucial functions. They:

Control body movements and functions. Signals from our brain to other body parts control
our movements. They also direct autonomic (involuntary) functions like our breathing rate
and heartbeat, as well as bowel and bladder function.

Report senses to your brain. Signals from other parts of our body help our brain record and
process sensations like pressure or pain.

Manage your reflexes. Our spinal cord controls some reflexes (involuntary movements)
without involving our brain. For example, our spinal cord manages our patellar reflex
(involuntarily moving our leg when someone taps our shin in a certain spot).

What are the nerves in the Spinal Cord?

Spinal Nerve is a mixed nerve which carries motor, sensory and autonomic signals between
brain and the body. In the human body, there are 31 pairs of nerves and nerve roots in our
spinal cord, one on each side of the vertebral column. These include:

Eight cervical nerve pairs (nerves starting in your neck and running mostly to your face and
head).

Twelve thoracic nerve pairs (nerves in your upper body that extend to your chest, upper back
and abdomen).

Five lumbar nerve pairs (nerves in the low back that run to your legs and feet).

Five sacral nerve pairs (nerves in the low back extending into the pelvis).

Single coccyngeal nerve (carries sensory information from the skin of the lower back). 
You also have a nerve bundle at the base of your spinal cord called the cauda equina. The
cauda equina comes from the Latin words for “horse’s tail,” because early anatomists thought
the nerve collection looked like a horse tail. The cauda equina includes nerves that provide
sensation to your lower body.

The spinal nerves send electrical signals between your brain, spinal cord and the rest of your
body. These electrical nerve signals help you feel sensations (sensory nerve) and move your
body (motor nerves).

Spinal cord coordinates repeated movements during walking, running etc. 

What is Vertebral Column? 

The Vertebral Column, also known as Spine, is the central axis of the skeleton in all
vertebrates. It surrounds the Spinal Cord. The vertebral column provides attachments to
muscles, supports the trunk, protects the spinal cord and nerve roots and serves as a site for
haemopoiesis (the production of blood cells and platelets, which occurs in the bone marrow).

The mammalian vertebral column consists of 33 (in infants and 26 in adults) vertebrae,
placed in series and connected by ligaments and invertebral discs

      Cervical – 7 bones 

      Thoracic – 12 bones 

         Lumbar – 5 bones

         Sacrum - 5 fused bones 

         Coccyx – 4 fused bones 

The vertebral column has four main functions: 

Protection – Encloses and protects the spinal cord within the spinal cord
Support – carries the weight of the body above the pelvis
Axis – Forms the central axis of the body
Movement- has roles in both postures and movements

The length of the vertebral column is 71cm in males and 61cm in females 
What is Central Canal? 

Central canal is the Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) filled space that runs through spinal cord. It
receives CSF from the ventricular system of the brain. It helps to transport nutrients to the
spinal cord as well as protect it by ‘cushioning’ the impact of a force when the spine is
affected. 

What conditions and disorders affect the spinal cord?

Many disorders or injuries can affect your spinal cord. Spinal cord injuries and disorders are
serious. Any injury to your spinal cord can cause severe symptoms in the parts of your body
below the injury.

Severe symptoms that can result from spinal cord damage can include loss of bladder
control or paralysis. For some disorders, getting treatment quickly can lower your risk of
long-term or permanent symptoms.

Common conditions that can affect your spinal cord include:

Acute transverse myelitis- Inflammation in one or more segments of your spinal cord.

Spondylolisthesis – Forward displacement of a vertebra

Retrolisthesis – Posterior displacement of one vertebral body with respect to the adjacent
vertebra

Cervical spondylosis - Progressive wear-and-tear of the spinal disks in your neck (cervical
disks) that can press on the spinal cord (cervical myelopathy).

Herniated disks -when a spinal disk slips out of place and moves into the space around your
spinal cord, pressing on nearby nerves.

Spinal fractures -When one or more vertebrae are crushed (compression fracture) or broken
(burst fracture) and put pressure on your spinal cord.

Spinal muscular atrophy- A rare genetic condition where people lose motor nerve cells in
the spinal cord, causing muscle weakness and atrophy (wasting away).
Spinal stenosis - Narrowing of your spinal column, leading to pinched nerves and spinal cord
irritation.

Spinal tumors- Masses — which may be cancerous or not (benign) — that start in your
spinal column and can put pressure on your spinal cord.

Spinal infections. When the pressure of an expanding abscess or collapse of an infected

vertebrae or disc puts pressure on the spinal cord.

The consequences of a spinal cord injury vary depending on the size and severity of the
injury. A spinal cord injury may cut off normal communication with the brain that can result
in a complete or incomplete injury. 

   A complete injury results in a total lack of sensory and motor function below the level of
injury. 

   An incomplete injury enables a person to maintain some motor or sensory function below
the injury

What is Reflex action? 

Reflex action is a sudden and involuntary response to stimuli. It happens to be an integral

component of the famed survival instinct. Most of the common reflexes are a response to all
the well-trained, accumulated knowledge of caution that we have internalized. It helps
organisms to quickly adapt to an adverse circumstance that could have the potential to cause
bodily harm or even death. 

Pulling our hands away immediately after touching a hot or cold object is a classic example
of a reflex action. In situations like these, your reactions are always immediate, involuntary
and sudden. They happen without much of a thinking process. Here the spinal cord has a
major role to play. 

Process:

The first event begins with the receptor detecting a stimulus from a sensory organ. The
stimulus could be in the form of pressure, temperature or chemicals.
This is followed by the sensory neuron sending a signal to the relay neuron (A neuron in the
spinal cord that receives electrical impulses from a sensory neuron. Sensory neurons and
motor neurons are connected by relay neurons).

The relay neuron then sends the signal to the motor neuron. The motor neuron sends a signal
to the organ or a cell that acts to the stimuli called the effector.

Finally, the effector produces an instantaneous response, such as a knee-jerk reaction.

The reflex arc shows the pathway through which the reflex action occurs. A reflex arc
includes a sensory neuron that sends a signal straight to the spinal cord (bypassing the brain)
which in turn generates a response such as a quick muscle contraction so fast that it’s
subconscious.

A few examples of reflex action are:

When light acts as a stimulus, the pupil of the eye changes in size.

Sudden jerky withdrawal of hand or leg when pricked by a pin.

Coughing or sneezing, because of irritants in the nasal passages.

Knees jerk in response to a blow or someone stamping the leg.

The sudden removal of the hand from a sharp object.

Sudden blinking when an insect comes very near to the eyes.

ASCENDING AND DESCENDING TRACT

Ascending and Descending spinal tracts are neural pathways within the spinal cord, which
carry information up and down the spinal cord connecting the brain to the rest of the body.

The ascending tracts carry sensory information from the body up the spinal cord to the brain.

Descending tracts carry motor information from the brain down the spinal cord to the body.

Both the tracts are made up of neuronal axons, that gather into long columns called Funiculi
(meaning “long rope”).
They are found inside ventral ,lateral and dorsal parts of Spinal Cord.

ASCENDING TRACT

Ascending tracts are sensory pathways that begin at the Spinal Cord and stretch all the way
up to cerebral cortex.

There are 3 types of Ascending tracts:

Dorsal column-medial lemniscus system

Spinothalamic (or anterolateral) system

Spinocerebellar system

They are made up of 4 successively connected neurons:

First-order neurons

Second-order neurons

Third-order neurons

Fourth-order neurons

First order neurons are found inside dorsal root ganglions from where they gather sensory
input and send it to the second order neurons, usually found inside the spinal cord or
brainstem.

They further transmit it to the third order neurons found inside the thalamus, and then the
fourth order neurons in the cerebral cortex.

While ascending through the spinal cord these tracts cross over to the opposite side of the
central nervous system, or CNS, meaning that the left side of the brain receives sensory input
from the right side of the body and vice versa. These crossings are called decussations and
they happen at different levels of the CNS for each of these tracts.
DESCENDING TRACT

Descending tracts are the pathways by which motor signals are sent from the brain to the
spinal cord. They are also called motor tracts, due to their involvement in movement
coordination.

They can be divided functionally into two major groups:

Pyramidal tracts – originate in the motor cortex; carry motor fibers to the spinal cord and
brainstem. They are responsible for the voluntary control of the striated muscles of the body
and face.

They include :

Corticospinal tract

Corticobulbar tract

Extrapyramidal tracts – originate in the brain stem; carry motor fibers to the

spinal cord. They are responsible for the involuntary and automatic control

of muscle tone, balance, posture and modulation of motor plans.

They include:

Rubrospinal tract

Vestibulospinal tract (lateral and medial)

Reticulospinal tract

Tectospinal tract

Each descending tract is formed by 2 interconnecting neurons. Together these create a

pathway from the upper neural structures in the brain to the target effector muscles.
First-order neurons are upper motor neurons (UMN). They arise from the cerebral cortex or
brainstem and travel down the spinal cord to synapse in the anterior gray horn. Second-order
neurons, or lower motor neurons (LMN), travel from the spinal cord to skeletal muscles,
innervating them.

Extrapyramidal tracts – originate in the brain stem; carry motor fibers to the

spinal cord. They are responsible for the involuntary and automatic control

of muscle tone, balance, posture and modulation of motor plans.

They include:

Rubrospinal tract

Vestibulospinal tract (lateral and medial)

Reticulospinal tract

Tectospinal tract

Each descending tract is formed by 2 interconnecting neurons. Together these create a

pathway from the upper neural structures in the brain to the target effector muscles.First-
order neurons are upper motor neurons (UMN). They arise from the cerebral cortex or
brainstem and travel down the spinal cord to synapse in the anterior gray horn. Second-order
neurons, or lower motor neurons (LMN), travel from the spinal cord to skeletal muscles,
innervating them.

 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless, watery fluid that flows in and around your
brain and spinal cord. Your brain and spinal cord make up your central nervous system. It
controls and coordinates everything you do, including your ability to move, breathe, see
think, and more.

Cerebrospinal fluid acts like a cushion that helps protect your brain and spinal cord from
sudden impact or injury. The fluid also removes waste products from the brain and helps your
central nervous system work properly.
 S

Cells called the choroid plexus inside the four ventricles produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a
clear fluid similar to blood plasma. CSF fills the ventricles, flowing from the lateral ventricles
to the third and fourth ventricles. From the fourth ventricle, some of it flows into the central
canal of the spinal cord, but more goes into the narrow spaces between the brain and the thin
meninges, membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord. In one of those narrow spaces,
the subarachnoid space, the blood gradually reabsorbs the CSF. Although the brain has no
pain receptors, the meninges do, and meningitis inflammation of the meninges is painful.
Swollen blood vessels in the meninges are responsible for the pain of a migraine headache.

Cerebrospinal fluid cushions the brain against mechanical shock when the head moves. It also
provides buoyancy. Just as a person weighs less in water than on land, cerebrospinal fluid
helps support the weight of the brain. It also provides a reservoir of hormones and nutrition
for the brain and spinal cord.

If the flow of CSF is obstructed, it accumulates within the ventricles or in the subarachnoid
space, increasing pressure on the brain. When this occurs in infants, the skull bones spread,
causing an overgrown head. This condition, known as hydrocephalus; is usually associated
with mental retardation.
Most cerebrospinal fluid is found in the subarachnoid spaces. The total volume of CSF in an
adult is about 150 ml, but as much as 500 ml is produced daily as this fluid is constantly
being used and cycled. About 80-85% of total CSF volume circulates within the subarachnoid
space. The remaining 15-20% circulates in the four ventricles of the brain. Ventricles are like
tunnels that go through the inner portions of the brain. They also connect the flow of CSF
from the subarachnoid space to the inner brain. CSF is produced in a structure called the
choroid plexus, and there is one of these structures within each brain ventricle. 

CSF analysis:

A CSF analysis is a group of tests that use a sample of your CSF to help diagnose diseases of
the CNS & other conditions that affects it.

Some diseases that may require CSF analysis include:

Multiple sclerosis
Meningitis
Spinal cord inflammation (myelitis)
Encephalitis (infectious, autoimmune, and paraneoplastic)
Cancers that involve the brain or spinal cord
Guillain-Barre syndrome
Subarachnoid hemorrhage

Diagnostic markers evaluated in a cerebrospinal fluid analysis:

Initial opening CSF pressure

Colour
Specific gravity
Red blood cells (RBCs)
White blood cells (WBCs)
Proteins (albumin and gamma globulin)
Lactate
Glucose
Autoimmune antibodies
Examination for bacteria, viral or parasitic infection
Our health care provider may order a CSF analysis if you have:

Symptoms of an infection or bleeding in the brain or spinal cord

Symptoms of an autoimmune disorder, such as multiple sclerosis (MS)
Had a brain injury or an injury to your spinal cord
Have cancer that may have spread to your central nervous system
Symptoms that may be from another central nervous system condition, such as headaches.

Cerebrospinal Fluid

 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Peripheral nerves are an integral part of the human nervous system. The nervous system
consists of:

Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)

Peripheral nervous system

Peripheral nerves reside outside your brain and spinal cord. They relay information
between your brain and the rest of your body.

Your peripheral nervous system has two main subsystems: autonomic and somatic.

Autonomic: These are nervous system processes your brain runs automatically and without
you thinking about them.

Somatic: These are functions you manage by thinking about them.

Those two subsystems are how your peripheral nervous system does its three main jobs:

Senses: Your PNS is a key part of how your brain gets information about the world around
you. This job falls under the somatic nervous system.

Movement: Your peripheral nerves deliver command signals to all the muscles in your body
that you can consciously control. This job also falls under the somatic nervous system.

Unconscious processes: This is how your brain runs critical processes that don’t depend on
your thinking about them. Examples of this include heartbeat and blood pressure. This job
depends on your autonomic nervous system.

The peripheral nervous system is divided into two main parts:

Autonomic nervous system (ANS): Controls involuntary bodily functions and regulates
glands.

Somatic nervous system (SNS): Controls muscle movement and relays information from
ears, eyes and skin to the central nervous system.

Three types of peripheral nerves can be found within the two main areas of the peripheral
nervous system:
Sensory: Connects the brain and spinal cord to your skin and allow you to feel pain and other
sensations.

Autonomic: Controls involuntary function (e.g., blood pressure, digestion, heart rate).

Motor: Connects the brain and spinal cord to muscles to stimulate movement.

When we move, the brain sends a message to the spinal cord. From there, the nerves carry the
message to the necessary muscles to make them contract and produce movement. Similarly,
when we touch an object, sensory information is carried through the nerves to the spinal cord
and then to the brain so we can make sense of that information.

Where is the peripheral nervous system located?

Your peripheral nervous system extends everywhere in your body that isn’t your spinal cord
or brain. It includes:

Cranial nerves: There are 12 pairs of nerves that connect directly to your brain, and 11 of
them are part of your peripheral nervous system (the second cranial nerve, which controls
your vision, is part of your central nervous system). These 11 nerves are part of your senses
of smell, sound, taste, and the sense of touch you have in the skin on your head, face and
neck. One of the 11, the vagus nerve, extends down and attaches to all vital organs from your
neck to your colon.

Spinal nerves: These are 31 pairs of nerves that attach to your spine at about the same level
as each segment bone (vertebra) in your spine.

The above nerves all branch out and become smaller nerves that spread throughout your
body. They eventually end at places like the tips of your fingers and toes or just underneath
the surface of your skin.

There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves in the human body. The olfactory nerve, optic nerve,
facial nerve, oculomotor nerve, vagus nerve, hypoglossal, nerve, vestibulocochlear nerve,
accessory nerve, trochlear nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve, trigeminal nerve and abducens
nerve.

There are eight pairs of cervical nerves, twelve pairs of thoracic nerves, five pairs
of lumbar nerves, five pairs of sacral nerves, and one pair of coccygeal nerves. 

Somatic Nervous System

somatic nervous system is a subdivision of your peripheral nervous system that stretches
throughout nearly every part of your body. The nerves in this system deliver information
from your senses to your brain. They also carry commands from your brain to your muscles
so you can move around.

Your somatic nervous system has two main jobs:

Sensory input. All but one of your senses travel through your somatic nervous system to
reach your brain (sight is the exception because your retina and optic nerve connect directly
to your brain). The other senses on your head — sound, smell, taste and touch — all use your
somatic nervous system to reach your brain. Your sense of touch below your neck uses your
somatic nervous system to reach your spinal cord, which then relays signals to your brain.
Movement control. Your body’s muscles rely on signals that give them instructions to help
you move around. The signals from your brain must pass through your somatic nervous
system to reach those muscles and make them move.

Autonomic Nervous System

Your autonomic nervous system is a network of nerves throughout your body that control
unconscious processes. These are things that happen without you thinking about them, such
as breathing and your heart beating. Your autonomic nervous system is always active, even
when you’re asleep, and its key to your continued survival.

Your autonomic nervous system breaks down into three divisions, each with its own job:

Sympathetic nervous system: This system activates body processes that help you in times of
need, especially times of stress or danger. This system is responsible for your body’s “fight-
or-flight” response.

Parasympathetic nervous system: This part of your autonomic nervous system does the
opposite of your sympathetic nervous system. This system is responsible for the “rest-and-
digest” body processes.

Enteric nervous system: This part of your autonomic nervous system manages how your
body digests food.

interesting facts about the autonomic nervous system

Your sympathetic and parasympathetic systems create a balancing act. Your

sympathetic nervous system activates body processes, and your parasympathetic deactivates
or lowers them. That balance is key to your body's well-being and your ongoing survival.

It involves multiple forms of communication. Your nervous system uses chemical

compounds produced by various glands in your body and brain as signals for communication.
It also uses electrical energy in the neurons themselves. The neurons switch back and forth
between electrical and chemical communication as needed.
 Your enteric nervous system is very complex. Some experts describe it as part of the
overall nervous system instead of the autonomic nervous system. That’s because there are as
many neurons (specialized cells that make up your brain, spinal cord and nerves) in your
enteric nervous system as there are in your spinal cord.

What Is the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous System?

Sympathetic Autonomic Nervous System: It is the part of the autonomic nervous system

located near the thoracic and lumbar regions in the spinal cord. Its primary function is to
stimulate the body’s fight-or-flight response. It does this by regulating the heart rate, rate of
respiration, pupillary response and more.

Parasympathetic Autonomic Nervous System: It is located in between the spinal cord and
the medulla. It primarily stimulates the body’s “rest and digest” and “feed and breed”
responses.

Sympathetic Parasympathetic

 Involved in maintaining homeostasis and

 Involved in the fight or flight response.
also, permits the rest and digest response.

 The sympathetic system prepares the body for any  The parasympathetic system aims to bring
potential danger. the body to a state of calm.

 Sympathetic system has shorter neuron pathways,  Has comparatively longer neuron
hence a faster response time. pathways, hence a slower response time.

 Increases heartbeat, muscles tense up.  Reduces heartbeat, muscles relaxes.

 The pupil dilates to let in more light.  The pupil contracts.

 Saliva secretion is inhibited.  Saliva secretion increases, and digestion

 increases.

 In “fight and flight” situations, Adrenaline is

 No such functions exist in “fight or flight”
released by the adrenal glands; more glycogen is
situations.
converted to glucose.

What are the hormones released by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?

The sympathetic nervous system releases the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine that
accelerate the heart rate.

The parasympathetic nervous system releases acetylcholine, the hormone that slows down the
heart rate.

What is the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system composed of?

The parasympathetic nervous system is composed of cranial and spinal nerves. The
sympathetic nervous system comprises cell bodies that lie within the grey column of the
spinal cord.

Difference between the autonomic nervous system,and somatic nervous system

Automatic nervous system Somatic nervous system

1.It controls the voluntary actions of

1.It controls the involuntary actions of the body.
the body.

2. It has three divisions: sympathetic, 2. It consists of sensory nerves and

parasympathetic, and enteric. motor nerves.
3. It involves the control of metabolism, secretion of
3. It involves movement and posture.
glands, etc.