TEAM MEMBERS:

 Annowar Muhamed
Ehtesham
 Dinagaren Govinden
 Pursan Nehasingh
 Reetoo Neeschay
 Sookun Rohun

NERVOUS SYSTEM
What are the different parts of the axon?
Axon, also called nerve fiber, portion of a nerve cell (neuron) that
carries nerve impulses away from the cell body. A neuron typically has one axon
that connects it with other neurons or with muscle or gland cells. Some axons
may be quite long, reaching, for example, from the spinal cord down to a toe.
Most axons of vertebrates are enclosed in a myelin sheath, which increases the
speed of impulse transmission; some large axons may transmit impulses at speeds
up to 90 meters (300 feet) per second.

The axon is the elongated fiber that extends from the cell body to the terminal
endings and transmits the neural signal. The larger the diameter of the axon, the
faster it transmits information. Some axons are covered with a fatty substance
called myelin that acts as an insulator. These myelinated axons transmit
information much faster than other neurons.
What are the terminal button and their functions:
The terminal buttons are located at the end of the neuron and are responsible for
sending the signal on to other neurons. At the end of the terminal button is a gap
known as a synapse. Neurotransmitters are used to carry the signal across the
synapse to other neurons.

The terminal buttons contain vesicles holding the neurotransmitters. When an

electrical signal reaches the terminal buttons, neurotransmitters are then
released into the synaptic gap. The terminal buttons essentially convert the
electrical impulses into chemical signals. The neurotransmitters than cross the
synapse where they are then received by other nerve cells.

The terminal buttons are also responsible for the reuptake of any excessive
neurotransmitters released during this process.

What is a:
Synapse:
When a nerve signal reaches the end of the neuron, it cannot simply continue to
the next cell. Instead, it must trigger the release of neurotransmitters which can
then carry the impulse across the synapse to the next neuron.

Synapses are composed of three main parts:

 The presynaptic ending that contains neurotransmitters

 The synaptic cleft between the two nerve cells
 The postsynaptic ending that contains receptor sites

An electrical impulse travels down the axon of a neuron and then triggers the
release of tiny vesicles containing neurotransmitters. These vesicles will then bind
to the membrane of the presynaptic cell, releasing the neurotransmitters into the
synapse. These chemical messengers cross the synaptic cleft and connect with
receptor sites in the next nerve cell, triggering an electrical impulse known as an
action potential.
Chemical Synapse: The first is the chemical synapse in with the electrical activity
in the presynaptic neuron triggers the release of chemical messengers, the
neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse and bind to
the specialized receptors of the postsynaptic cell. The neurotransmitter then
either excites or inhibits the postsynaptic neuron. Excitation leads to the firing of
an action potential while inhibition prevents the propagation of a signal.

Electrical synapses transfer signals much faster than chemical synapses. While the
speed of transmission in chemical synapses can take up to several milliseconds,
the transmission at electrical synapses is nearly instantaneous. Where chemical
synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory, electrical synapses are excitatory only.

Synaptic Cleft
A synaptic cleft is a space that separates two neurons. It forms a junction between
two or more neurons and helps nerve impulse pass from one neuron to the other.

A synaptic cleft is not only a space between two neurons. It acts as a junction,
connecting two or more neurons with one another.
Synaptic cleft is present between two neurons; a pre-synaptic or pre-junctional
neuron, and a post-synaptic or post-junctional neuron.

Synaptic cleft is essential for the transmission of nerve impulses from one neuron
to the other, in case of a chemical synapse.

A chemical synapse is a type of synapse in which nervous signal is transmitted

from one neuron to the other through the chemicals that are released in the
synaptic cleft. These chemicals are called neurotransmitters.

Receptors

Receptors are proteins, usually cell surface receptors, which bind to ligands and
cause responses in the immune system, including cytokine receptors, growth
factor receptors and Fc receptor. Receptors can be found in various immune cells
like B cells, T cells, NK cells, monocytes and stem cells. A molecule that binds to a
receptor is called a ligand, and can be a peptide (short-protein) or another small
molecule such as a neurotransmitter, hormone, pharmaceutical-drug, toxin, or
parts of the outside of a virus or microbe. When a ligand binds to its
corresponding receptor, it activates or inhibits the receptor's associated-
biochemical pathway.

Receptors can induce cell growth, division and death; control membrane channels
or regulate cell binding. Receptors play an important role in signal transduction,
immune therapy and immune responses.

How transmission occurs at the level of the

synapse?
Synaptic transmission is the process by which one neuron communicates with
another. Information is passed down the axon of the neuron as an electrical
impulse known as action potential. Once the action potential reaches the end of
the axon it needs to be transferred to another neuron or tissue.

The following steps describe what happens when a nerve impulse reaches the end
of an axon.
1. When a nerve impulse reaches the end of an axon, the axon releases
chemicals called neurotransmitters.
2. Neurotransmitters travel across the synapse between the axon and the
dendrite of the next neuron.
3. Neurotransmitters bind to the membrane of the dendrite.
4. The binding allows the nerve impulse to travel through the receiving
neuron.

The transmission of synaptic signals is mediated by chemical neurotransmitter

substances. Neurotransmitters are synthesized in presynaptic terminals and
stored in synaptic vesicles. Transmitter release is evoked by presynaptic action
potentials (APs), which activate influx of Ca2+ into terminals and trigger a Ca2+-
dependent exocytosis of transmitter from synaptic vesicles into the synaptic cleft.
Once released, neurotransmitters activate specific receptor-gated channels in the
postsynaptic cell and elicit a transient change in the membrane permeability to
cations or anions. Fast synaptic transmission is mediated by ionophoric receptors.
Slow synaptic transmission is mediated by G-protein-coupled receptors.
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) are associated with transmitter-induced
increase in Na+ and K+ conductance of the synaptic membrane, resulting in net
entry of positive charge carried by Na+ and membrane depolarization. Inhibitory
postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) are associated with transmitter-activated influx of
Cl− and membrane hyperpolarization. The EPSPs at the skeletal neuromuscular
junction are called end-plate potentials (EPPs). In a healthy neuromuscular
junction, the EPPs are always large enough to depolarize the muscle membrane to
threshold and trigger muscle APs. The EPSPs generated at any single neuro-
neuronal synapse are usually too small to depolarize the postsynaptic neuron to
threshold. Synaptic signals converging onto a neuron are normally integrated
through summation of EPSPs and IPSPs and an AP is triggered only when the
resultant membrane potential reaches or exceeds the threshold. Chemical
synaptic transmission is subject to modulation by intrinsic and extrinsic factors,
including frequency and pattern of AP firing, which can either facilitate or depress
the transmission across any given synapse.

Different channels present during transmission of a

nerve impulse:
The neurons are cells with some special abilities. These cells get excited, because
of the membranes that are in a polarized state. Each neuron has a charged cellular
membrane, which means there is a voltage difference between the inside and the
outside membrane.
There are also different types of ion channels on the cellular membrane, which are
selectively permeable to certain ions, present in the membrane of the neuron.
Ions must pass through ion channels when they either enter or exit the neurons.
These ion channels can be open, closed or inactive.

Transmission of the Nerve Impulse

A nerve impulse is generated when the stimulus is strong. This stimulus triggers
the electrical and chemical changes in the neuron. As mentioned already there are
different ions on either side of the cell membrane. The exterior side has sodium
ions that are positively charged and are more in number.  The interior side of the
cell is negatively charged with more potassium ions. Due to this difference in the
charges, there is an electrochemical difference.

When a nerve impulse is generated, there is a change in the permeability of the

cell membrane. The sodium ions flow inside and potassium ions flow outside,
causing a reversal of charges. The cell is now depolarized. This depolarization
results in an action potential which causes the nerve impulse to move along the
length of the axon. This depolarization of the membrane occurs along the nerve. A
series of reactions occur where the potassium ions flow back into the cell and
sodium ions move out of the cell. This whole process again results in the cell
getting polarized, with the charges being restored.

When the nerve impulse reaches the end of the axon, there are some chemicals
released from the neurotransmitters. They diffuse across the synaptic gap, which is
the small space present between the axon and the receptors. Nerve impulses can
be transmitted either by the electrical synapse or the chemical synapse.