Nervous system

The human nervous system consists of neurons - nerve cells which transmit information in the form of nerve
impulses. We can divide our nervous system into 2 parts: CNS and PNS. CNS (Central nervous system) consists of the
neurons of the brain and the spinal cord. It receives information from sensory receptors which is processed and
interpreted before the CNS initiates response. PNS (Peripheral nervous system) consists of the peripheral nerves -
network of neurons that carry information from and to CNS. PNS includes sensory neurons which carry information
to the CNS and motor neurons which transmit impulses from the CNS to the muscles and glands and then cause
a response. The third type of neurons which are found in our nervous system are called relay neurons. They form
connections within CNS between sensory and motor neurons.

A motor neuron structure: There are many small dendrites which receive information from relay neurons and
transmit it to the cell body (consists of nucleus and cytoplasm). There is 1 long axon which is covered by a myelin
sheath formed from Schwann cells (wrapped around the axon). Myelin has a high lipid content, so it is a good
electrical insulator that speeds the transmission of impulses along the axon. At the end, there are some terminal
branches of the axon.

Transmission of impulse: Impulses are short-lived changes in electrical potential across the neuron membrane. All
neurons contain sodium (Na+)and potassium (K+). An impulse occurs as these ions move in and out through the
membrane. When a neuron is not transmitting an impulse, it is at its resting potential. It is the potential difference
across the membrane when it is not stimulated (-70mV). Inside of the axon is charged negatively (because of
presence of chloride and other negative ions) and outside is charged positively. When there is an nerve impulse, the
charge of ions across the membrane is reversed(positive charge is inside and negative is outside). At this moment,
the membrane is said to be depolarised. When there is a reversed charge in 1 part of the axon, the next part is
depolarised by local currents. When the impulse travels in this way, it is known as an action potential. Local currents
are set up between adjacent regions of the axon what causes the depolarisation of the next section of the axon
when there is an action potential in previous part of the axon. These adjacent regions also cause ion channels to
open, allow change of Na+ and K+ ions and cause each successive part of the axon to reach its threshold potential
and become depolarised. The nerve impulse can travel only in 1 direction, because the previous region is in recovery
phase of the action potential and it unable to generate a new action potential. This recovery phase is known as the
refractory period. The speed of impulse transmission depends on the diameter of the axon (a larger diameter means
faster transmission). Larger axons are myelinated while smaller ones are not. At intervals along myelinated axons are
gaps known as nodes of Ranvier. The sheath prevents the flow of ions across the membrane so the current must
jump from node to node (saltatory conduction process). This speeds up the transmission of the nerve impulse.

What happens at the plasma membrane when an action potential is generated:

1. When a neuron is stimulated, Na channels open and Na+ ions flow in from the outside. They follow the
electrochemical gradient (electrical+concentration gradient) to move into the cell. Now, the neuron is depolarised.
2. For a very short period of time, the inside of the axon is positively charged (outside is negatively charged) as
sodium ions enter. At this point, Na channels close.

3. Then, K channels open and K+ ions leave the axon, moving down their electrochemical gradient to re-establish the
resting potential (repolarisation process).

4. Due to the move of so many K+ ions, the potential difference is now below the resting potential. At this point,
both Na and K channels close. The resting potential is re-established by the action of sodium-potassium pumps,
which move ions back across the membrane.

The synapse: It is a place where 2 neurons meet. They do not touch each other. There is a small gap about 20mm
known as the synaptic cleft. Action potential must be transported across this gap to continue the impulse
transmission. This is achieved by the presence of chemicals known as neurotransmitters which are held in vesicles in
the pre-synaptic cell until the action potential arrives. Then, they are released into the synaptic cleft and diffuse to
the post-synaptic membrane. There they can cause another action potential and initiation of a nerve impulse,
provided the threshold potential is reached. The example of this process is a cholinergic synapse which uses
acetylcholine (ACh) as the neurotransmitter. ACh binds to receptors and causes depolarisation of the post-synaptic
membrane and the action potential. When an action potential is generated, ACh in the synaptic cleft is deactivated
by acetylcholinesterase enzymes and the products are reabsorbed by the synaptic membrane to be remade and
repackaged in vesicles. There are more than 40 different neurotransmitters in the body. ACh and noradrenalin are
found throughout the nervous system. Others like dopamine are found only in the brain. Many drugs and toxins
affect synapses and influence the transmission impulse. Cocaine and amphetamines are excitatory drugs which
stimulate the transmission. Benzodiazepenes, cannabis and alcohol suppress the activity of the nervous system.
Nicotine is an excitatory drug, it has the similar molecular shape to ACh and affects the post-synaptic membrane so
that it transmits an action potential. Neonicotinoids are pesticides used in insecticides. They are similar in structure
to nicotine and block transmission at the synapses of insects. Nowadays, they are restricted.

The human brain

The human brain is a truly amazing organ. Its weigh is less than 1,5 kg, it is a spongy mass of nerve tissue which is the
master control centre of our body. We have the seat of our intelligence, emotions and memory here. Brain has also
a direct control over moving body parts and indirect control over other body parts.

The structure of the brain: The brain is surrounded by three protective membranes called meninges.
Inflammation of these membranes is called meningitis. The bulk of the brain consists of ventricles which are
continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord. These spaces are filled with cerebrospinal fluid which supplies
the neurons in the CNS with gases, nutrients, white blood cells and hormones... This fluid also fills the spaces
between the meninges, cushioning the CNS against mechanical disturbances (knocks and bumps). Underneath the
meninges, the CNS contains neuroglial cells which are non-excitable and 2 distinct areas of excitable nervous tissue
called white and grey matter. White matter consists of nerve fibres and grey matter consists of nerve cell bodies.
The most of the grey matter is in the cerebral cortex (layer of the cerebrum). Neuroglial cells do not conduct nerve
impulses, they have a supportive structure and protective role in the CNS.

Functions of the brain:

1.the hindbrain: it consists of the medulla oblongata and the cerebellum. The medulla oblongata contains the
neural centres which control physiological activities such as breathing, heart rate and blood pressure. It is also
involved in swallowing and cough reflex or in saliva production. The cerebellum is a large and complex lobe at the
back of the brain. It receives sensory information from the organs of balance in the ears and from proprioceptors in
muscles and tendons. It works in association with the cerebral cortex to coordinate muscle movement, including
maintaining posture.

2.the midbrain: it links the hindbrain with the forebrain. It controlls the visual and auditory reflexes such as locate
sound or enable a person to follow a moving object...
3. the forebrain: it includes the cerebrum, the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The cerebrum forms the bulk of
the brain and consists of 2 cerebral hemispheres, a pair of symmetrical rounded masses. They are separated by
a deep fissure, but connected at the base by a bridge of fibres called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum
enables information and learning to be transferred from one hemisphere to the other. Small clusters of nerve cells
called basal ganglia occur under the corpus callosum and play an important role in motor coordination. When they
are damaged, motor coordination is disturbed (Parkinson disease). The cortex is a layer of the cerebrum, only 2-3
mm deep. It is the largest and most complex part of the brain. It contains thousands of millions of neurons with
many synaptic connections. The pathways are determined genetically and by experience. These pathways enable us
to have conscious thoughts and actions. They also produce our most distinctive human characteristics: solving
problems, imagination of abstract concepts or displaying artistic talent... The cortex has 4 discrete lobes (frontal,
temporal, parietal and occipital) and number of functional areas in it. Sensory areas receive impulses from sesnse
organs all over the body. Motor areas send instructions along motor neurons from the brain to voluntary muscles
and control the muscles of limbs, trunk, head, etc... Association areas make up the most of the cerebral cortex. One
big association area is in the frontal lobe and it is a site of higher mental activities: integration from other areas so
that we can think, make decisions and use language. The visual association areas interprets, processes and stores
visual information. The auditory association area performs the same function for sound waves. Much of human
personality, learning and memory semms to be associated with the limbic system. This consists of 3 parts: the
hippocampus, the thalamus and the hypothalamus in the base of the brain. The hippocampus is involved in
complex learning, reasoning and personality. The thalamus relays signals from sensory systems to the brain and it is
also involved in the perception of pain and pleasure. The hypothalamus provides a link between the brain and the
endocrine system.