The Physiologic Basis of

Behavior
• Human behavior has a physiologic
basis
• When a person reacts, many forces
inside and outside the body integrate to
explain such behavior
 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Is the complex
arrangement
throughout the
body of highly
specialized
cells:
• nerve cells
(neurons)
• It acts as a
communication
sytem,
enabling the
organism to
respond to
external and
internal stimuli
 Functions of the Nervous
System
Receiving Sensory Inputs
•Sensory receptors monitor numerous
external and internal stimuli
Integrating Information
•The brain and spinal cord are the major
organs for processing input and initiating
responses
•The input may produce an immediate
response, stored (memory) or ignored
Controlling Muscles and Glands
•Skeletal muscles normally contract only
when stimulated by the nervous system
•Nervous system also participates in
controlling cardiac, smooth, and many
glands
Maintaining Homeostasis
•This function depends on the nervous
system's ability to detect, interpret, and
respond to changes in internal and
external conditions
•The nervous system can stimulate or
inhibit the activities of other systems to
help maintain a constant internal
environment
Establishing and Maintaining Mental
Activity
•The brain is the center of mental activity
including consciousness, memory and
thinking
The Receiving Mechanism
Sense Organs
• are sensitive
nerve endings
located in
certain body
parts
• are receptors
of stimulus
• they provide data for perception
Traditional Senses:
 Sight (opthalmoception)- Visual
 Hearing (audioception)- Auditory
 Taste (gustaoception)- Gustatory
 Smell (olfacoception)- Olfactory
 Touch (tactioception)- Tactile
• Sight
(opthalmoception)-
Visual
• is the capability of
the eye(s) to focus
and detect images of
visible light on
photoreceptors in the
retina of each eye
that generates
electrical nerve
impulses for varying
colors
Photoreceptors:
Rods
• are very sensitiv
e to light, but do
not distinguish c
olors
Cones
• distinguish colo
rs, but are less s
ensitive to dim li
ght
Hearing (audioception)- Auditory
• is the sense of sound perception
Taste (gustaoception)- Gustatory
• refers to the capability to detect the
taste of substances such as food,
certain minerals, and poisons, etc
• is often confused with the "sense" of
flavor, which is a combination of taste
and smell perception
• flavor depends on odor, texture, and
temperature as well as on taste
• humans receive tastes through sensory
organs called taste buds, or gustatory c
alyculi, concentrated on the upper surf
ace of the tongue
• There are five
basic tastes:
 sweet
 bitter
 sour
 salty
 umami
Non-traditional Senses:
Equilibriuception (Vestibular Sense)
• is the sense that allows an organism to
sense body movement, direction, and a
cceleration, and to attain and maintain
postural equilibrium and balance
Thermoceptions
• is the sense of heat and the absence of
heat (cold) by the skin and including int
ernal skin passages
Proprioception (Kinesthetic Sense)
• provides the parietal cortex of the brain
with information on the relative positio
ns of the parts of the body
Nociception (Physiological Pain)
• signals nerve-damage or damage to tis
sue
It attributes are:
Sensitivity and irritability
• the power to react to stimulus
Conductivity
• the power to conduct nerve impulses
Specificity
• the attribute of reacting to particular
stimulus
Adaptability
• the power to become used to particular
stimulus
Type of Sense
Organs
According to
Location:
Exteroceptors
• found in the
eyes, ears,
nose, mouth,
skin, and are
sensitive to
external
stimulus
Interoceptors
• sense
organs in
the
respiratory
tract,
digestive
and genito-
urinary tract
Proprioceptors:
• are embedded
in muscles,
tendons, and
joints
 The Reacting Mechanism
• Muscle and
glands comprise
this reacting
mechanism
Includes:
 lacrhymal
(tear)
glands
 sebaceous
(sweat)
glands
 salivary
 gastric
 sex
 mammary glands
Cells of the Nervous System
1. Neurons
•Receive stimuli, conduct action potentials,
and transmit signals to other neurons or
effector organs
 Parts of Neurons
Cell Body
•It contain a
single nucleus
which is the
source of
information for
gene
expression
Dendrites
•Short, often
highly
branching
cytoplasmic
extensions that
are tapered from
their bases at
the neuron cell
body to their
tips
• It usually receive information from other
neurons or from sensory receptors and
transmit the information toward the
neuron cell body
Axon
•A single long cell process extending from
the neuron cell body
Axon hillock
•Area where the axon leaves the neuron
cell body
• Axons of sensory neurons conduct
action potentials towards the CNS
• Axons of motor neurons action
potentials away from the CNS
• It also conduct action potentials from
one part of the brain or spinal cord to
another part
• It may remain unbranched or may
branched to form collateral axons
• Axons can be surrounded by a highly
specialized insulating layers
Types of Neuron
Multipolar neurons
•Have many dendrites and a single layer
•Most neuron in CNS and nearly all motor
neurons are multipolar
Bipolar
•One dendrite and one axon
•Found in special organs (eyes and nose)
Pseudo-unipolar
•Have a single process extending from the
cell body
•Found in most sensory neurons
2. Neuroglia
•Glial cells are non-neuronal cells of the
CNS and PNS
Types
1. Astrocytes
•Serve as the
major supporting
cells in the CNS
•It can stimulate or
inhibit the
signaling activity
of nearby neurons
• Astrocytes participate with the blood
vessel endothelium to form
permeability barrier (blood-brain
barrier) between the blood and CNS
• It also help limit damage to neural
tissue
2. Ependymal cells
•Line the fluid-filled cavities (ventricles
and canals) within the CNS
•Some produce cerebrospinal fluids
(CSF)
•Others with cilia on the surface help
move the CSF through the CNS
3. Microglia
•Act as immune
cells of the CNS
•They help
protect the brain
by removing
bacteria and cell
debris
4. Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
5. Schwann cells
(PNS)
•Provide
insulating
material that
surrounds axons
• Axons are surrounded by cell
processes of oligodendrocytes (CNS)
and Schwann cells (PNS)
 Myelin Sheaths
• Myelinated axons have specialized
sheaths that wrapped around them
• Myelin is an excellent insulator that
prevents almost all ion movement across
the cell membrane
• Each oligodendrocytes processes and
Schwann cell repeatedly wraps around
a segment of an axon to form a series
of tightly wrapped cell membrane
Nodes of Ranvier
•Gaps in myelin sheath that occur about
every millimeter between the
oligodendrocytes segment or individual
Schwann cells
• Myelination of an axon increases the
speed and efficiency of action potential
generation along the axon
 Organization of Nervous
Gray matter
Tissue
•Consists of groups of neuron cell bodies
and their dendrites where there is very
little myelin
•In CNS:
gray matter on the surface of the brain
is called the cortex
clusters of gray matter located deeper
within the brain are called nuclei
• In PNS:
 a cluster of neuron cell bodies is called
a ganglion
White matter
•Consists of bundles of parallel axons
with their myelin sheaths, which are
whitish in color
•In CNS:
it forms nerve tract or conduction
pathways which propagate action
potentials from one area of the CNS to
another
• In PNS:
 bundles of axons and their connective
tissue sheaths are called nerves
 Resting Membrane
Potentials
• It is the uneven
charge
distribution
(polarized) in
an
unstimulated
or resting cell
• The inside of
most cell
membranes is
negatively
charge
compared to
the outside of
the which is
positively
charged
Resting membrane potential is generated
by 3 main factors:
1.A higher concentration of K+
immediately inside the cell membrane
2.A higher concentration of Na+
immediately outside the cell membrane
3.Greater permeability of the cell
membrane to K+ than to Na+
Basic Types of Ion
Channels:
1. Leak Channels
•Are always open
where ion can
“leak” across the
membrane down
their
concentration
gradient
• When the cell is at rest, the membrane
potential is established by diffusion of
ions through leak channels
• Because there are 50-100 times more K+
than Na+ leak channels:
 the resting membrane has much
greater permeability to K+
 K+ leak channels have the greatest
contribution to the resting membrane
potential
2. Gated Channels
•Are closed until opened by specific
signals
Chemically gated channel
•are opened by neurotransmitter or other
chemicals
Voltage-gated Channel
•are opened by a charge in membrane
potential
• When opened, the gated channel can
change the membrane potential are
thus responsible for the action
potential
Sodium-Potassium Pump
•It is needed to compensate for the
constant leakage of ions accross the
membrane
•The pump actively transport K+ ion into
the cell and Na+ out of the cell
•It is estimated to consume 25% of all
ATP in a typical cell and 70% in a neuron
 Action Potentials
Depolarization:
•Muscles and nerve cells are excitable
cells:
the resting membrane potential
changes in response to stimuli that
activate gated ion channels
• The channel responsible for the action
potential are voltage-gated Na+ - K+
channels
 these channels are closed when the
plasma membrane is at rest
• When these channels are opened
following neurotransmitter activation:
 Na+ channels open briefly and Na+
diffuses quickly into the cell (local
current)
 causes the intracellular positive -
DEPOLARIZATION
• If depolarization is not strong enough,
the Na+ channels close again
• If depolarization is large enough:
 Na+ enters the cell so that the local
potential reaches a threshold value
 as more Na+ enters the cell,
depolarization occurs
• Action potentials occur in all-or-none
fashion:
 if threshold is reached, an action
potential occurs
 if the threshold is not reached, no
action potential occurs
Repolarization:
•After depolarization, a brief reversal of
charge takes place across the membrane
•the inside of cell becomes positive, the
outside becomes negative
• The reversal of charges causes Na+
channels to close and more K+ channels
to open
 Na+ then stops entering the cell
 K+ leaves the cell
• Consequently, the charge inside the cell
becomes negative - REPOLARIZATION
 the negatively charged molecules
inside the cell tend to attract the
positive K+ back into the cell
 The Synapse
• It is a junction where the axon of one
neuron interacts with another neuron
or with cells of an effector organ
Presynaptic
terminal
•the end of the
axon
Postsynaptic
membrane
•the
membrane of
the dendrite or
effector cell
Synaptic cleft
•the space
separating the
presynaptic and
postsynaptic
membrane
Neurotransmitters
•chemical
substance stored
inside synaptic
vesicles in the
presynaptic cleft
• When an action potential reaches the
presynaptic terminal, causes the influx
of Ca+ into the cell:
 this causes the release of
neurotransmitter from the presynaptic
terminal
 NEUROTRANSMITTER
Acetylcholine
Site of Release:
•CNS synapses
•ANS synapses
•Neuromuscular junctions
Effect:
•Excitatory (muscle contraction)
Norepinephrine (NE)
Site of Release:
•Selected CNS synapses
•Some ANS synapses
Effect:
•Excitatory
Serotonin
Site of Release:
•CNS synapses
Effect:
•Generally inhibitory (mood, anxiety,
sleep induction)
Dopamine
Site of Release:
•Selected CNS synapses
•Some ANS synapses
Effect:
•Excitatory or inhibitory
Gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA)
Site of Release:
•CNS synapses
Effect:
•Inhibitory
Glycine
Site of Release:
•CNS synapses
Effect:
•Inhibitory
Endorphins
Site of Release:
•Descending pain pathways
Effect:
•Inhibitory
 REFLEXES
• It is an involuntary reaction in response
to a stimulus applied to the periphery
and transmitted to the CNS
• Reflexes allow a person to react to stimuli
more quickly than is possible if conscious
thought is involved
Reflex Arc
•The neural pathway by which a reflex
occurs
•It is the basic functional unit of the
nervous system:
the smallest, simplest pathway capable
of receiving stimuli and yielding a
response
5 Basic components
1.Sensory receptor
2.Sensory neuron
3.Interneuron
(located between &
communicating with
2 other neurons)
4.Motor neuron
5.Effector organ
(muscle or gland)
 Neural Pathways
Converging Pathway
•2 or more neurons synapse with
(converging on) the same neuron
•It allows information transmitted in more
than one neuronal pathway to converge
into one pathway
Diverging Pathway
•Axon from one neuron divides
(diverges) and synapses with more than
one other neurons
•This allows information transmitted in
one neural pathway to diverge into to or
more pathways
 Division of Human Nervous
System
Atounomic or Sympathetic Nervous
System
• many of its activities are "autonomous"
or "self-regulating" which go on even
when a person is asleep or
unconscious
• it consist of 2 antagonistic but
integrated system
A. Sympathetic
System
• it is active in
emotion
• activating the
organism in
response to pain,
anger, or fear thru
the controlled
secretion of
epinephrine
(adrenalin)
B. Parasympathetic System
• affects one organ at a time
• it tends to act in quiescent activity
• it maintains the function that conserve
and protect the bodily reserves
(maintaining homeostasis)
• The function of these systems can also
be described in terms of competition
and cooperation
 The Cerebro-Spinal
System
• the brain and the
spinal cord is
protected by 3
meninges:
Dura mater
• the outer membrane lining the inner
surface of the skull forming a
protective covering of the brain
Arachnoid
• the thin membrane beneath the dura
mater which secretes a serous fluid
keeping the inner the surface moist
Pia mater
• the membrane dipping to the
convulotions, fissures, and the interior
and is rich in blood supply
 The Central Nervous System
The Brain
Cerebrum
The largest part of
the brain
It is divided into left
and right
hemisphere by a
longitudinal fissure
Gyri (gyrus)
•The numerous
folds which
generally
increase the
surface area of
the cortex
Sulci (sulcus)
•Intervening
grooves
The Lobes of the
Brain
Frontal Lobe
•It is important in the
control of:
voluntary motor
functions
motivation
aggression
mood
olfactory (smell)
Parietal Lobe
•The principal
center for
receiving most
sensory
information:
pain
touch
temperature
balance
Occipital Lobe
•Functions in
receiving and
perceiving visual
input and is not
distinctly
separate from
the other lobes
Temporal Lobe
•Involved in
olfactory and
auditory
sensations and
plays an
important role in
memory
• Its anterior and inferior portions
(“psychic cortex), are associated with
functions such as abstract thoughts
and judgment
• for:
 sense perception
 voluntary movements
 learning
 remembering
 thinking
 emotion
 consciousness
 personality integration
Brainstem
•Connects the spinal cord to the
remainder of the brain
•It contains several nuclei involved in
vital body functions (vital signs)
•Damage to small areas of the brainstem
can cause death
Medulla
Oblongata
• has control
over
breathing,
swalling,
digestion,
heartbeat
Pons
•It contains
ascending and
descending nerve
tracts
•It also relays
information
between the
cerebrum and
cerebellum
• Lower pons (connected to medulla
oblongata) partly controlled breathing,
swallowing, and balance
Midbrain
• connects
cerebrum
and
diencephalon
with spinal
cord
• Reflex center concerned with vision
and hearing:
 eye movements
 controlling pupil diameter
 lens shape
• It also contains a black nuclear mass
(substantia nigra) which is involved in
regulating body movements
 Reticular
Formation
• for the arousal
and alertness of
the organism
• the change from
sleep to
wakefulness
Cerebellum
• Attached to
the brainstem
• for:
 muscle tone
 body balance
 coordination
of voluntary
movements
Diencephalon
•Part of the
brain between
the brainstem
and cerebrum
•Composed of:
thalamus
epithalamus
hypothalamus
Thalamus
• the way-
station for
impulses
coming up
the spinal
cord to the
cerebrum
Epithalamus
•Located superior
and posterior to
the thalamus
•It consists of few
small nuclei, which
are involved in the
emotional and
visceral response
to odor
• Some functions of its components
include the secretion of melatonin and
secretion of hormones from pituitary
gland by the pineal gland (involved in
circadian rhythms), and regulation of
motor pathways and emotions.
PIneal Gland
•An endocrne
gland that may
influence the
onset of puberty
and may play a
role in controlling
some long-term
cycles that are
influenced by
light-dark cycle
Hypothalamus
• most inferior part
of the
diencephalon
• plays a central
role in the control
of:
 body temperature
 hunger
 thirst
• Sensations such as sexual pleasure,
rage, fear, and relaxation after a meal
are related to hypothalamus functions
Corpus Callosum
• contain fibers
connecting the
two brain
hemisphere
Brain Areas
Motor Area
• provides
conscious
control of
skeletal
muscles
Premotor Area
•Is where motor
functions are
organized before
they are actually
initiated in the
primary motor
complex
Body-Sense
Area
(Somato
Sensory)
• where
impulses
from the
skin, such as
touch, pain,
and
temperature
are
interpreted
Visual Area
• for interpreting impulses arising from
the retina of the eye
Auditory Area
• for receiving
and
interpreting
impulses
from the ear
Speech Area
(Broca's
Area)
• controlled
speech
muscles in
the tongue,
soft palate,
and the
larynx
Association
Area
• bring
together
phenomena
involving
more than
sesnes
Smell Area
(Olfactory
Area)
• concerned
with the sense
of smell
• stimulated by
impulses
arising from
the receptors
in the nose
Taste Area
(Gustatory
Area)
• Located
behind the
central
fissure at the
lower part of
the side of
the brain
Limbic System
Olfactory cortex
Central cortical regions
Nuclei of the cerebrum
Diencephalon
•It influences long-term declarative
memory, emotion, visceral responses to
emotions, motivation, and mood
•Major source of sensory to the limbic
system is the olfactory nerves
Memory
Working Memory
•Briefly stores information required for the
immediate performance of a task
•It last only a few seconds to minutes and
occurs mostly in the frontal cortex
•Working memory is limited primarily by
the number of bits of information (about
seven) that can be stored at any one time
• When new information is presented, old
information, previously stored in
working is eliminated
Short-term Memory
•Last longer than working memory and
can be retained for a few minutes to a
few days
•Stored by a mechanism involving
increased synaptic transmission
•It is susceptible to brain trauma and to
certain drugs that affect neural function
Long-term Memory
•Stored to become permanent by
consolidation, a gradual process involving
the formation of new and stronger synaptic
connections
•The length of time memory is stored may
depend on how often it is retrieved and used
Declarative Memory (Explicit Memory)
•Involves the retention of facts, such as
names, dates, and places, as well as
related emotional undertones
•Emotion and mood apparently serve as
gates in the brain and determine what is
stored in long-term declarative memory
Procedural Memory (Reflexive Memory)
•Involves the development of motor skills
•Only a small amount of procedural
memory is lost over time
Brain Waves and Consciousness
•Brain produces brain waves as
electroencephalogram (EEG)
•EEG patterns are irregular, with no
particular pattern
Alpha Waves
•Observed in
normal person
who is awake
but in quiet,
resting state
with the eyes
closed
Beta Waves
•Have a higher
frequency than alpha
waves and occur
during intense
mental activity
•During the
beginning of sleep, a
rapid transition
takes place from
beta to alpha rhythm
Delta Waves
•Occurs during
deep sleep, in
infants, and in
patients with
severe brain
disorders
Theta Waves
•Usually
observed in
children, but they
can also occur in
adults who are
experiencing
frustration or
who have certain
brain disorders
The Peripheral Nervous System
• it is composed of the:
 cranial nerves
 spinal nerves
 nerves of the autonomic nervous
system
 Cranial
Nerves
• there are 12
pairs of
cranial
nerves
made up of
sensory,
motor, and
mixed
nerves
• motor nerves
arise from cell
bodies within
the brain
• sensory nerves
arise from cell
bodies outside
the brain
 The Cranial Nerves
CN I (Olfactory)
Functionl
Component:
• special sensory
(smell)
Function:
• carries impulses
for the sense of
smell toward the
brain
CN II (Optic)
• special
sensory
(vision)
• carries visual
impulses
from the eye
to the brain
CN III (Oculomotor)
• somatic/ visceral motor
• controls contraction of eye muscles
CN IV (Trochlear)
• somatic motor
• supplies the superior oblique of the eye
 CN V
(Trigeminal)
• general sensory
• bronchial motor
• carries impulses
from eye, upper
and lower jaw
toward the brain
 CN VI (Abducent)
• Somatic motor
• controls an eyeball movements
CN VII (Facial)
• bronchial motor/ visceral motor/ special
sensory
• control muscles of facial expression
• carries sensation of taste
• stimulates small salivary glands and
lacrimal gland
CN VIII (Acoustic/Vestibulocochlear)
• special sensory
 vestibular (balance)
 cochlear (hearing)
• carries sensory impulses for hearing
and equilibrium from the inner to the
brain
CN IX (Glossopharyngeal)
• visceral/bronchial motor
• carries impulses from tongue and
pharynx (throat)
• controls swallowing muscles
• stimulates the parotid salivary glands
CN X (Vagus)
• bronchial/visceral
motor
• general sensory
• supplies most of
the organs in the
thoracic and
abdominal
cavities
• carries motor
impulses to the
larynx (voice box)
and pharynx
 CN XI
(Accessory)
• bronchial
motor
• controls
sternocleido
mastoid and
trapezius
muscles
CN XII (Hypoglossal)
• somatic motor
• controls muscles of the tongue
CN mnemonics:
• oh, oh, oh, to touch and feel very green
vegetable, such heaven
• oh, oh, oh, to touch and feel a girl's
vagina a heaven
 Spinal Nerves
• there are 31
pairs of spinal
nerves
• each pair
numbered
according to
the level of
the spinal
cord which it
arises
• each nerve is attached to the spinal cord
by 2 roots:
• dorsal root
• ventral root
• on each dorsal
root is a marked
swelling of gray
matter called
dorsal root
ganglion
Ganglion
• is any collection
of nerve cell
bodies located
outside the CNS
• fibers from
sensory
receptors
throughout
the body
lead to these
dorsal root
ganglia
• the ventral
roots of the
spinal nerves
are a
combination of
motor (efferent)
fibers that
supplies
muscles and
glands
(effectors)
Branches of the Spinal Nerves
Plexus
• is network of spinal nerves
Cervical Plexus
• supplies motor to the muscles of the
neck
• receives sensory impulses from the
neck and back of the head
• the phrenic nerves, which activates the
diaphragm, arises from this plexus
Brachial Plexus
• sends
numerous
branches to
the shoulder,
arm, forearm,
wrist, and
hand
• the radial
nerve
emerges from
the brachial
plexus
 Lumbosacral
Plexus
• supplies nerves
to the pelvis and
legs
• the largest
branch of this
plexus is the
sciatic nerve