THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM
Maribi Maria Benita E. Balagan
A. Importance of studying the Nervous System
A. It helps us understand sensory functions and how they
aid in perception.
B. It helps us understand neural activity in connection with
muscular movement and coordination.
C. It shed light on the relation of internal states such as
emotions and drives.
• It aids in understanding how brain cells function in
learning and memory.
• It has practical implications to maladjustment and
behavioral disorders.
• Basic questions about the human brain:
• How does the brain maintain and repair itself over the life
span and how are these capacities related to behavior
• How does the brain acquire, process and use information
about the environment?
• How does the brain monitor and regulate motivated
behaviors such as production, eating, energy balance,
sleeping, waking and emotions?
• How does the brain acquire and store information and
make it available for use?
• Methods and approaches:
• Philosophical – views that mental states stem-up from
bodily states. ( Hippocrates)
• Clinical approach – it puts much concern on bodily
disorders and how they affect behavior and mental activity.
• Experimental approach – requires the formulation of
hypotheses and deduction. The most common method
used in Biological and Physiological Psychology.
 Microscopic view of the Nervous
System
• Neuron doctrine – the brain is composed of separate
cells that are distinct units; that is, the cells are
separate structurally, metabolically and functionally.
( Ramon Cajal)
• Nervous system – body system that transmits,
integrates and discriminates sensory information.
 Parts of the nerve cell

• Nerve cell body – contains the nucleus; it includes

the genetic instructions and also controls all
metabolic activities of the cell. It contains millions of
protein molecules, lipid molecules, RNA molecules
and potassium ions. It primarily receives and
integrates sensory information.
• Axon – conducts impulses away from the cell body
• Collaterals- branches of axon
• Myelin sheath – accessory cell that wraps the axon; it
improves the speed of conduction of neural impulses.
• Schwann cells – accessory cells that form the myelin sheath
• Node of Ranvier – the gap where axon membrane is
exposed.

Axonal transport or protoplasmic streaming is the process by

which materials synthesized in the cell body are
transported to the distant axons and dendrites.
• Dendrites – extension of nerve cells that arise from
the cell body and branch out in highly complex ways.
• Synapse
• Synaptic bouton – swelling of the axon terminal which
contains many spherical components.
• Post synaptic membrane
• Synaptic cleft – a space between the presynaptic and post
synaptic elements.
• Synaptic transmitter – substance that flows
across the synaptic cleft and produces
changes in the post synaptic membrane
• The changes in the post synaptic membrane
are the basis of transmission of excitation
or inhibition from one cell to another. The
surface of the postsynaptic membrane
contains special receptors that capture and
react to molecules of the transmission
agent.
 Types of nerve cells

A. Structure:
• multipolar neuron – nerve cells with many
dendrites and a single axon

Ex: cortical pyramidal cells

• Bipolar neuron – are nerve cell with a
single dendrite at one end of the cell
and a single axon at the other end.
 Unipolar – nerve cells with a single branch leaving a
cell body which then extends in 2 directions.

Ex: nervous system of invertebrates

• In terms of size:
• Small – granules, spindle and stellate
• Large:
• Pyramidal cells
• Golgi type
• Purkinjie cells
 The glial cells

• They are the most abundant cells found in the region

of the primate brain.
• Functions:
• To provide structural support of the neural elements
within the CNS
• It provides a pathway from the vascular system to the
nerve cells. It delivers raw materials that nerve cells use to
synthesize complex compounds.
• It produces myelin sheath
• Types:
• Astrocyte – “astra” ; they are star-shaped cell with
numerous processes or extension that run in all directions.
• Oligodendrocyte – “oligo”; much smaller than an astrocyte
and has fewer physiologic processes.
• Microglia – they are extremely small, they are activated by
disease states to remove cellular debris from injured or
dead cells
 Synaptic transmission

• The neurotransmitter is synthesized in the cell body

of the neurons ( this is sometimes called the
presynaptic neuron) and then is transported down
the axon to the axon terminal.
• Neurotransmitters are stored in the synaptic vessicle
• When an electrochemical impulse or action potential
reaches the axon terminal, it causes the contents of
the vesicles to release into the synapse.
• The neurotransmitter crosses the synapse and
occupies the receptor sites on the dendrites of the
next neuron ( postsynaptic neuron)
• When the neurotransmitter occupies the receptor
sites, it allows Na to enter the post synaptic cell and
the entire process begin again.
• The neurotransmitter is either recycled or taken back
into the axon terminal of the post synaptic neuron
and stored in the vesicles to be used again or is
inactivated by enzymes in the synapse.
• Clip 1: Nervous System
• (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UabDiuTtU0M
• Orientation of the Brain
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f_hxX_xvHQY
The Central Nervous System

1. Myelencephalon (medulla)
• Most posterior region of the brain
• Composed of tracts carrying signals
between the rest of the brain and body
• It controls vital activities such as
breathing, heart beat and blood
circulation.
• An interesting part of the myelencephalon is the reticular formation
• Reticular formation – is a complex network of about 100 tiny nuclei that
occupies the central core of the brain stem from the posterior boundary
of the myelencephalon to the anterior boundary of the midbrain
• The reticular formation is involved in sleep, attention, movement,
maintenance of muscle tone and various cardiac circulatory and
respiratory reflexes
 B . Metencephalon – it houses many ascending and
descending tracts and forms part of the reticular
formation.
• Pons – a bulge in the brain stem located at the ventral
surface.
• Cerebellum – an important sensorimotor structure
which is largely convoluted; and is located on the dorsal
surface of the brain stem.
• It is responsible for maintaining balance and posture
C. Mesencephalon ( Midbrain)
• Tectum (roof) – it is located at the
dorsal surface of the midbrain.
• Inferior colliculli ( little hill) – posterior pair which
has an auditory function.
• Superior colliculi – it has a visual function

• Tegmentum – it is located ventral to the

tectum
• Structures of the tegmentum
• Periaqueductal gray – gray matter
around the cerebral aqueduct. It is
the duct connecting the 3rd and 4th
ventricles of the brain. It has a role
in mediating the pain-reducing
effects of opiate drugs.
• Substantia nigra
• Red nucleus
• The Basal Ganglia
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=InJByqg1x-0
• Diencephalon
A. Thalamus – the large two-lobed structure that
constitutes the top of the brain stem.
• The two lobes are joined by the substantia nigra by
the mass intermedia which runs through the
ventricles
• The white lamina are myelinated axons that run
through its surface
• Sensory nuclei receives signals from sensory
receptors, process them and then transmits them
to the appropriate area of sensory cortex.
• Lateral geniculate nuclei – tracts of the visual
system
• Medial geniculate nuclei – auditory system
• Ventral posterior nuclei – somatosensory system
B. Hypothalamus – plays an important role in the
regulation of several motivated behavior.
- it exerts its effects in part by regulating the release
of hormones from the pituitary gland.
- optic chiasm – a point at which the optic nerve
from each eye come together. The x-shaped is
created because some of the axons of the nerve
decussate.
 • Mamillary bodies – pair of spherical
hypothalamic nuclei located in the inferior
surface
D. Telencephalon – largest division of the human brain
• A. cerebral cortex – deeply convoluted;
convolutions have the effect of increasing the
amount of cerebral cortex without increasing the
over all volume of the brain
• The large furrows in a convoluted cortex are called
fissures and the small ones are called sulci .
• The ridges between fissures and sulci are called
gyri.
• Longitudinal fissure – divides the cerebral
hemisphere.
• Corpus callosum – large cerebral commissure
• Central and lateral fissures divide each hemisphere
into four lobes
• Precentral gyri – it contains the
motor cortex
• Post central gyri – contains the
somatosensory area
• Superior temporal gyri- contains
the auditory cortex.
• Neocortex ( new cortex) – a six-
layered cortex
• 3 important characteristics of neocortex
anatomy:
• There are two fundamentally different
kinds of cortical neurons: the pyramidal
and stellate cells.
• Pyramidal cells are large multipolar
neurons with pyramid-shaped cell bodies
and a large dendrite called apical dendrite
that extends from the apex of the
pyramid straight towards the cortex
surface and a very long axon.
• The six layers of the cortex differ from one
another in terms of the size and density of
their cell bodies and the relative proportion of
pyramidal and stellate cell bodies that they
contain.
• Many long axons and dendrites course
vertically through the neocortex. This vertical
flow of information is the basis of columnar
organization; neurons in a given vertical
column often forms a mini circuit that forms a
single function.
• There are variations in the layer from area to
area. Ex: the stellate cells of layer IV are thick
because they are specialized for receiving sensory
signals from the thalamus. Conversely, because
the pyramidal cells of layer V conduct signals
from the neocortex to the brain stem and spinal
cord, layer V is extremely thick in areas of the
motor cortex.
• Hippocampus –it is located at the medial
edge of the cerebral cortex as it folds back on
itself on the medial temporal lobe. This
folding produces a shape that looks like a sea
horse.
• It is responsible for the formation of
memories
• The Hippocampus
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ErpxEwlWww4
• Corpus Callosum – a deep bridge of nerve fibers
that connects the 2 cerebral hemispheres.
• It has an intricate pattern of folds –hills and
valleys- called convolutions to fit inside the skull.
• Sensory projection area – it is where messages
from sense receptors register
• Motor projection area – it is where response
messages start their trip down the brain stem to
“tell” the muscles and glands what to do.
• Lobes of the brain:
• Frontal lobe – forms the anterior portion
of each hemisphere. It controls voluntary
muscle functions, mood aggression,
aggression, smell reception and motivation
• Parietal lobe – located behind frontal lobe.
It is the control area for evaluating sensory
information of touch, pain, balance, taste
and temperature.
• Temporal lobe – it is found beneath the
frontal lobe and parietal lobe. It evaluates
hearing input and smell as well as being
involved with memory processes. It also
functions as an important center for
abstract thoughts and judgment decisions.
• Occipital lobe – it forms the back portion
of each hemisphere. It functions in
receiving and interpreting visual input.