Chapter 14

The Brain and

Cranial Nerves

Lecture Presentation by
Lee Ann Frederick
University of Texas at Arlington

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 Chapter 14: Overview

1. The brain: anatomical regions and functions (overview)

2. The brain: ventricles
3. Protection and support: cranial meninges and CSF
4. The medulla oblongata
5. The pons
6. The midbrain (mesencephalon)
7. The diencephalon
8. The cerebellum
9. The cerebrum
10. Cranial nerves

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 An Introduction to the Brain and Cranial
Nerves
The Adult Human Brain
Volume ranges from 750 mL to 2100 mL
Contains almost 97 percent of the bodys neural
tissue
Average weight about 1.4 kg (3 lb)

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 Pituitary gland

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 14-1 The Brain

Six Regions of the Brain

1. Cerebrum
2. Cerebellum
3. Diencephalon
4. Midbrain
5. Pons
6. Medulla oblongata

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 14-1 The Brain

The Brain Stem

Processes information between:
Spinal cord and cerebrum or cerebellum
Includes:
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata

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 14-1 The Brain

Medulla Oblongata
Connects brain to spinal cord
Relays information
Regulates autonomic functions
Heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion

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 14-1 The Brain

Pons
Connects cerebellum to brain stem
Is involved in somatic and visceral motor control
Midbrain
Also called mesencephalon
Processes sight, sound, and associated reflexes
Maintains consciousness

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 14-1 The Brain

Diencephalon
Thalamus
Relays and processes sensory information
Hypothalamus
Hormone production
Emotion
Autonomic function

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 14-1 The Brain

Cerebellum
Second largest part of brain
Coordinates repetitive body movements
Two hemispheres
Covered with cerebellar cortex

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 14-1 The Brain

Cerebrum
Largest part of brain
Controls higher mental functions
Divided into left and right cerebral hemispheres
Surface layer of gray matter (neural cortex)

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 14-1 The Brain

Embryonic Development
Determines organization of brain structures
Neural tube
Origin of brain
Enlarges into three primary brain vesicles
1. Prosencephalon
2. Mesencephalon
3. Rhombencephalon

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 14-1 The Brain

Five Secondary Brain Vesicles

1. Telencephalon
2. Diencephalon
3. Mesencephalon
4. Metencephalon
5. Myelencephalon

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 14-1 The Brain

Origins of Brain Structures

Diencephalon and mesencephalon persist
Telencephalon
Becomes cerebrum
Metencephalon
Forms cerebellum and pons
Myelencephalon
Becomes medulla oblongata

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Table 14-1 Development of the Brain.

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 14-1 The Brain

Ventricles of the Brain

Origins of ventricles
Neural tube encloses neurocoel
Neurocoel expands to form chambers (ventricles)
lined with ependyma
Each cerebral hemisphere contains one large
lateral ventricle
Separated by a thin medial partition (septum
pellucidum)

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 14-1 The Brain

Ventricles of the Brain

Third ventricle
Ventricle of the diencephalon
Lateral ventricles communicate with third ventricle
Via interventricular foramen (foramen of Monro)

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 14-1 The Brain

Ventricles of the Brain

Fourth ventricle
Extends into medulla oblongata
Becomes continuous with central canal of the
spinal cord
Connects with third ventricle
Via narrow canal in midbrain called the cerebral
aqueduct

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 Cerebral Ventricles of
hemispheres the Brain

Lateral ventricles

Interventricular
foramen

Third ventricle

Cerebral aqueduct

Fourth ventricle

Medulla oblongata
Central canal
a Ventricles, lateral view

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 Cerebral hemispheres
Ventricles of
the Brain

Lateral ventricles

Interventricular
foramen

Third ventricle

Cerebral aqueduct

Fourth ventricle

Central canal

b Ventricles, anterior view

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 14-1 The Brain

The Brain
The brain is a large, delicate mass of neural tissue
Containing internal passageways and chambers
filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Each of the six major brain regions has specific
functions
Ascending from the medulla oblongata to the
cerebrum, brain functions become more complex
and variable
Conscious thought and intelligence
Are produced in the neural cortex of the cerebral
hemispheres

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 14-2 Brain Protection and Support

Physical Protection of the Brain

Bones of the cranium
Cranial meninges
Cerebrospinal fluid

Biochemical Isolation
Bloodbrain barrier

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 14-2 Brain Protection and Support

The Cranial Meninges

Have three layers
1. Dura mater
2. Arachnoid mater
3. Pia mater
Are continuous with spinal meninges
Protect the brain from cranial trauma

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 14-2 Brain Protection and Support

The Cranial Meninges

Dura mater
Inner fibrous layer (meningeal layer)
Outer fibrous layer (periosteal layer) fused to
periosteum
Venous sinuses between two layers

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 14-2 Brain Protection and Support

The Cranial Meninges

Arachnoid mater
Covers brain
Contacts epithelial layer of dura mater
Subarachnoid space between arachnoid mater and
pia mater
Pia mater
Attached to brain surface by astrocytes

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 14-2 Brain Protection and Support

Dural Folds
Folded inner layer of dura mater
Extend into cranial cavity
Stabilize and support brain
Contain collecting veins (dural sinuses)
Three largest dural folds
1. Falx cerebri
2. Tentorium cerebelli
3. Falx cerebelli

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 14-2 Brain Protection and Support

Falx Cerebri
Projects between the cerebral hemispheres
Contains superior sagittal sinus and inferior
sagittal sinus
Tentorium Cerebelli
Separates cerebellum and cerebrum
Contains transverse sinus
Falx Cerebelli
Divides cerebellar hemispheres below the
tentorium cerebelli

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 Cranium Dura mater (P.L.)
Dural sinus
Subarachnoid space
Dura mater (M.L)
Pia mater
Subdural space

Arachnoid mater

Cerebrum

Cerebellum

Medulla oblongata
Spinal cord
a
A lateral view of the brain
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 Superior Inferior
Dura mater sagittal Cranium sagittal
sinus sinus

Dural folds

Falx cerebri
Tentorium
cerebelli
Falx cerebelli

Transverse
sinus

b Falx cerebri, tentorium cerebelli, and falx cerebelli

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 14-2 Brain Protection and Support

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Surrounds all exposed surfaces of CNS
Interchanges with interstitial fluid of brain
Functions of CSF
Cushions delicate neural structures
Supports brain
Transports nutrients, chemical messengers, and
waste products

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 14-2 Brain Protection and Support

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Choroid plexus
Specialized ependymal cells and capillaries
Secrete CSF into ventricles
Remove waste products from CSF
Adjust composition of CSF
Produces about 500 mL of CSF/day

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 14-2 Brain Protection and Support

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

CSF circulates:
From choroid plexus
Through ventricles
To central canal of spinal cord, AND

into subarachnoid space via two lateral apertures

and one median aperture around the brain, spinal
cord, and cauda equina

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 14-2 Brain Protection and Support

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

CSF in subarachnoid space
Arachnoid villi
Extensions of subarachnoid space
Extend through dura mater to superior sagittal sinus
Arachnoid granulations
Large clusters of villi
Absorb CSF into venous circulation

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 Nutrients,
Interstitial fluid O2
in thalamus Capillaries
Waste products, Neuron
CO2

Astrocyte
The choroid plexus produces
and maintains CSF.
1
Two extensive CF folds in the roof of
the 3rd ventricle, extending through Ependymal
interventricular foramina. Folds cover Removal
of waste
cells
the floors of the lateral ventricles.
In the roof of the 4th ventricle, the CP Production
projects between cerebellum and pons. of CSF

CSF
(3rd ventricle)

Choroid plexus Choroid plexus

ependymal cells

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 Choroid plexus
of third ventricle

Choroid plexus
2 of fourth ventricle
Materials diffuse
between CSF and
interstitial fluid of 3
CSF into sub-
the CNS through arachnoid space: 2
ependymal cells. lateral apertures and
1 median aperture
(4th ventricle).
4
CSF in sub-
arachnoid space
Central canal
surrounds brain,
spinal cord, and
Cauda equina cauda equina.

Filum terminale
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 Dura mater Arachnoid Arachnoid
(periosteal layer) granulation trabecula

Cranium
CSF fluid
Superior movement
sagittal sinus
Dura mater
(meningeal
layer)

Subdural
space
Arachnoid
mater
Cerebral
cortex Subarachnoid
space
Pia mater
5
Fingerlike extensions of the arachnoid membrane,
called the arachnoid villi, penetrate the meningeal layer
of the dura mater and extend into the superior sagittal
sinus. In adults, these extensions form large arachnoid
granulations. CSF is absorbed into the venous
circulation at the arachnoid granulations.
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 14-2 Brain Protection and Support

Blood Supply to the Brain

Supplies nutrients and oxygen to brain
Delivered by internal carotid arteries and vertebral
arteries
Removed from dural sinuses by internal jugular
veins

Cerebrovascular Disease
Disorders interfere with blood circulation to brain
Stroke or cerebrovascular accident (CVA)
Shuts off blood to portion of brain
Neurons die
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 14-2 Brain Protection and Support

BloodBrain Barrier (BBB)

Isolates CNS neural tissue from general circulation
Formed by network of tight junctions
Between endothelial cells of CNS capillaries
Lipid-soluble compounds (O2, CO2), steroids, and
prostaglandins
Diffuse into interstitial fluid of brain and spinal cord
Astrocytes control bloodbrain barrier by:
Releasing chemicals that control permeability of
endothelium

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 14-2 Brain Protection and Support

BloodCSF Barrier
Formed by special ependymal cells
Surrounds capillaries of choroid plexus
Limits movement of compounds transferred
Allows chemical composition of blood and CSF to
differ

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 14-2 Brain Protection and Support

Four Breaks in the BBB

1. Portions of hypothalamus
Secrete hypothalamic hormones
2. Posterior lobe of pituitary gland
Secretes hormones ADH and oxytocin
3. Pineal gland
Pineal secretions
4. Choroid plexus
Where special ependymal cells maintain blood
CSF barrier

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 14-2 Brain Protection and Support

Summary:
Meninges stabilize brain in cranial cavity
Cerebrospinal fluid protects against sudden
movement
CSF provides nutrients and removes wastes
Bloodbrain barrier and bloodCSF barrier
Selectively isolate brain from chemicals in blood
that might disrupt neural function

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 Diencephalon
Cerebral peduncle
Thalamus Lateral geniculate nucleus
Optic tract
Medial geniculate nucleus
Cranial
nerves Midbrain

N II Superior colliculus
Inferior colliculus
N III
N IV
Cerebellar peduncles
Superior cerebellar
NV peduncle

Pons
Middle cerebellar
N VI peduncle
N VII
Inferior cerebellar
N VIII peduncle
N IX
NX
N XI Medulla
oblongata
N XII
Spinal
nerve C1

Spinal Spinal
nerve C2 cord

a Lateral view
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Figure 14-5b The Diencephalon and Brain Stem.

Optic chiasm Infundibulum

Cranial
Thalamus
nerves

N II

Optic tract N III

Cerebral N IV
peduncle
Mammillary NV
body Pons
N VI
N VII
N VIII
N IX
NX
N XI

N XII
Medulla
oblongata
Ventral roots
of spinal
nerves C1
and C2
Spinal cord
b Anterior view
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Figure 14-5c The Diencephalon and Brain Stem.

Choroid plexus Thalamus

in third and
fourth ventricles Third ventricle
Pineal gland

Corpora quadrigemina
Superior colliculi

Inferior colliculi
N IV

Cerebral peduncle

Cerebellar peduncles
Superior
Middle
Choroid plexus
in roof of Inferior
fourth ventricle

Dorsal roots
of spinal nerves
C1 and C2

c Posterior view
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Figure 14-5d The Diencephalon and Brain Stem.

Thalamus
Third ventricle
Pineal gland

Corpora quadrigemina
Superior colliculi

Inferior colliculi

Cerebral peduncle

Trochlear
Cerebellar peduncles
nerve
Superior (N IV)
Middle

Inferior
Fourth
ventricle

d Posterior view, cadaver dissection

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 14-3 The Medulla Oblongata

The Medulla Oblongata

Allows brain and spinal cord to communicate
Coordinates complex autonomic reflexes
Controls visceral functions
Includes three groups of nuclei
1. Autonomic nuclei
2. Sensory and motor nuclei of cranial nerves
3. Relay stations along sensory and motor pathways

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 14-3 The Medulla Oblongata
1. Autonomic Nuclei of the Medulla Oblongata
Reticular formation
Gray matter with embedded nuclei
Regulates autonomic functions through:

Reflex centers
Control peripheral systems
a) Cardiovascular centers
Cardiac center (rate and force of heart beat)
Control blood flow through peripheral tissues
(blood vessel diameter)
b) Respiratory rhythmicity centers
Set pace for respiratory movements

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 14-3 The Medulla Oblongata

2. Sensory and Motor Nuclei of the Medulla Oblongata

Associated with 5 of 12 cranial nerves
Vestibulocochlear nerves (VIII)
Glossopharyngeal nerves (IX)
Vagus nerves (X)
Accessory nerves (XI)
Hypoglossal nerves (XII)

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 14-3 The Medulla Oblongata

3. Relay Stations of the Medulla Oblongata

Nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus
Pass somatic sensory information to thalamus
Solitary nucleus
Receives visceral sensory information
Olivary nuclei (olives)
Relay information about somatic motor commands

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 Autonomic centers

Reticular formation
Medulla Cardiovascular centers
oblongata
Solitary nucleus

Pons
Relay stations

Olivary nucleus
Nucleus cuneatus
Spinal cord Nucleus gracilis
Medulla
oblongata Lateral white columns
a Anterior view

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 The Medulla Oblongata
Region/Nucleus Function

GRAY MATTER

Olivary nucleus
Relay information from the red nuclei, other midbrain
centers, and the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum

Reflex centers Regulate heart rate and force of contraction

Cardiovascular center Set the basic pace of respiratory movements
Respiratory rhythmicity center
Nucleus gracilis Relay somatic information to the thalamus
Nucleus cuneatus
Other nuclei/centers Sensory and motor nuclei of five cranial nerves;
Cranial nerves VIII (in part), IX, X, XI nuclei relay ascending information from the spinal
(in part), and XII cord to higher centers

Reticular formation
WHITE MATTER
Ascending and descending tracts
b within columns
Contains nuclei and centers that regulate vital autonomic
functions; extends into the pons and midbrain
Link the brain with the spinal cord

Posterolateral
view

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 14-4 The Pons
1. Sensory and motor nuclei of cranial nerves
Trigeminal nerves (V)
Abducens nerves (VI)
Facial nerves (VII)
Vestibulocochlear nerves (VIII)
2. Nuclei involved with respiration
Apneustic center and pneumotaxic center
Modify respiratory rhythmicity center activity
3. Nuclei that process and relay information to
and from cerebellum
4. Ascending, descending, and transverse tracts
Transverse fibers (axons)
Link nuclei of pons with opposite cerebellar hemisphere
Ascending/descending: interconnect parts of CNS
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 The Pons
Region/Nucleus Function

WHITE MATTER

Descending tracts

Ascending tracts

Transverse fibers
Pons
Cerebellum GRAY MATTER

Apneustic and
pneumotaxic centers
Reticular formation Automatic processing of
Medulla oblongata
incoming sensations and
outgoing motor commands
Olivary nucleus
Cranial nerve nuclei Relay sensory information and
N V, VI, VII, and VIII (in issue somatic motor commands
part)
Other nuclei/relay Relay sensory and motor
centers Information to the cerebellum

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 14-5 The Cerebellum

Functions of the Cerebellum

1. Adjusts postural muscles/balance
2. Fine-tunes conscious and subconscious
movements

Disorders of the Cerebellum

Ataxia
Damage from trauma or stroke
Intoxication (temporary impairment)
disturbs muscle coordination

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 14-5 The Cerebellum

Structures of the Cerebellum

Cerebellar hemispheres
Separated at midline by vermis (narrow band of cortex)
Anterior and posterior lobes
Separated by primary fissure
Folia
Surface of cerebellum
Highly folded neural cortex

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 14-5 The Cerebellum

Structures of the Cerebellum

Arbor vitae (tree of life)
Highly branched, internal white matter of
cerebellum
Cerebellar nuclei embedded in arbor vitae
Relay information to Purkinje cells
Purkinje cells
Large, branched cells
Found in cerebellar cortex
Receive input from up to 200,000 synapses

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 14-5 The Cerebellum

Structures of the Cerebellum

The peduncles
Tracts link cerebellum with brain stem, cerebrum,
and spinal cord
Superior cerebellar peduncles
(connect to midbrain, diencephalon, and cerebrum)
Middle cerebellar peduncles
(connect to pons)
Inferior cerebellar peduncles
(connect to medulla oblongata)

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 Vermis

Anterior lobe

Primary fissure

Folia

Posterior
lobe

Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere

of Cerebellum of Cerebellum

a The posterior, superior surface of the cerebellum

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 The Cerebellum
Anterior Region/Nuclei Function

GRAY MATTER
lobe Cerebellar
Midbrain cortex Involuntary coordination
Cerebellar and control of ongoing
nuclei body movements
Pons WHITE MATTER

Arbor vitae
Cerebellar peduncles
Medulla Superior
oblongata
Middle
Inferior
Posterior lobe
b A sectional view of the cerebellum

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 14-6 The Midbrain

Structures of the Midbrain

Tectum
Two pairs of sensory nuclei (corpora quadrigemina)
Superior colliculus: integrate visual information with
other sensory input; initiate reflex responses to visual
stimuli
Inferior colliculus: receives auditory information;
initiate reflex responses to auditory stimuli
Tegmentum
Red nucleus (many blood vessels)
Substantia nigra (pigmented gray matter)

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 14-6 The Midbrain
Structures of the Midbrain
Tegmentum
Red nucleus: coordination of muscular movements
Substantia nigra: control of subconcious muscle activity

Cerebral peduncles
Nerve fiber bundles on ventrolateral surfaces
Contain:
1. Descending fibers to cerebellum via pons
2. Motor command fibers (issued by cerebrum)

Reticular formation: RAS (reticular activating system)

Responsible for maintaining consciousness and
awakening from sleep!
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 The Midbrain
Region/Nuclei Function
Pineal
GRAY MATTER
gland Tectum (roof)
Superior colliculus (visual information)
Thalamus
Inferior colliculus (auditory information)

Substantia nigra
Red nucleus

Reticular formation

Other nuclei/centers: Nuclei associated with cranial nerves III and IV

WHITE MATTER
a A posterior view.
Cerebral peduncles

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 14-7 The Diencephalon

The Diencephalon
Thalamus, epithalamus, and hypothalamus
Integrates sensory information and motor commands

Epithalamus:
Contains the pineal gland
Secretes hormone melatonin (circadian rhythm)

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 14-7 The Diencephalon

The Thalamus
Filters ascending sensory information for primary
sensory cortex
Relays information between basal nuclei and
cerebral cortex

The third ventricle

Separates left thalamus and right thalamus
Interthalamic adhesion
Projection of gray matter
Extends into ventricle from each side

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 Frontal lobe Parietal lobe

Occipital
lobe

a
The thalamic nuclei

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 14-7 The Diencephalon
The Thalamus
Thalamic nuclei (at least 23 nuclei)
Are rounded masses that form thalamus
Relay sensory information to basal nuclei and
cerebral cortex

Five Groups of Thalamic Nuclei

1. Anterior group
Anterior nuclei
Part of limbic system (emotions)
2. Medial group
Provides awareness of emotional states

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 14-7 The Diencephalon

3. Ventral group
Relays sensory information
4. Posterior group
Pulvinar nucleus (sensory)
Lateral geniculate nucleus (visual)
Medial geniculate nucleus (auditory)
5. Lateral group
Affects emotional states
Integrates sensory information

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 Frontal lobe Parietal lobe

Occipital
lobe

a A lateral
view of the brain, color coded
to indicate the regions that
receive input from the
thalamic nuclei shown in part (b)

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 Limbic Frontal Parietal lobe Association areas
system lobes and cingulate of cerebral cortex
gyrus

Anterior Medial group

group
Lateral group

Posterior Pulvinar
group nucleus
V e n t r a l
g r o u p Auditory
input

Medial
Basal geniculate
nuclei nucleus
General Lateral
sensory Visual geniculate
Cerebellum input input nucleus

b An enlarged view of the thalamic nuclei of the left side

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 14-7 The Diencephalon
The Hypothalamus= major regulator of homeostasis

Mammillary bodies
Process olfactory and other sensory information
Control reflex eating movements
Infundibulum
A narrow stalk (connects hypothalamus to
pituitary gland)
Tuberal area
Located between the infundibulum and mammillary
bodies
Helps control pituitary gland function

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 Interthalamic
adhesion

The Hypothalamus
Thalamus Region/Nuclei Function

Paraventricular nucleus Secretes oxytocin, stimulating smooth muscle

contractions in uterus and mammary glands

Preoptic area Regulates body temperature by control of

autonomic centers in the medulla oblongata
Tuberal Hypothalamus
area Autonomic centers Control heart rate and blood pressure by
Sympathetic regulation of autonomic centers in the
Optic Parasympathetic medulla oblongata
chiasm
Produces inhibitory and releasing hormones
Tuberal nucleus that control endocrine cells of the anterior
Infundi- lobe of the pituitary gland (adenohypophysis)

bulum Mammillary body Control feeding reflexes (licking, swallowing, etc.)

Suprachiasmatic nucleus Regulates daily (circadian) rhythms

Pituitary Pons
Supraoptic nucleus Secretes antidiuretic hormone, restricting
gland water loss by the kidneys

A diagrammatic view of the hypothalamus

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 14-7 The Diencephalon

Eight Functions of the Hypothalamus

1. Provides subconscious control of skeletal muscle
(e.g. changes in facial expression that accompany rage)
2. Controls autonomic function
(heart rate, movement of food, contraction of urinary bladder)
3. Coordinates activities of nervous and endocrine
systems
(carried by bloodstream to the anterior pituitary gland)
4. Secretes hormones
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Oxytocin (OT childbirth, maternal bonding, lactation)

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 14-7 The Diencephalon

Eight Functions of the Hypothalamus

5. Produces emotions and behavioral drives
The feeding center (hunger)
The thirst center (thirst)
6. Coordinates voluntary and autonomic functions
7. Regulates body temperature
Preoptic area of hypothalamus
8. Controls circadian rhythms (daynight cycles)
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (receives input from the
retina of the eye)

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 14-8 The Limbic System

The Limbic System

Is a functional grouping that:
Establishes emotional states
Links conscious, intellectual functions of cerebral
cortex with unconscious, autonomic functions of brain
stem
Facilitates memory storage and retrieval

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 14-8 The Limbic System
Components of the Limbic System
Amygdaloid body
Acts as interface between the limbic system, the
cerebrum, and various sensory systems
Limbic lobe of cerebral hemisphere
Hippocampus (important in learning, especially in
storage and retrieval of new long term memories)

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 14-8 The Limbic System

Components of the Limbic System

Fornix
Tract of white matter
Connects hippocampus with hypothalamus
Anterior nucleus of the thalamus
Relays information from mammillary body to
cingulate gyrus
Reticular formation
Stimulation or inhibition affects emotions (rage,
fear, pain, sexual arousal, pleasure)

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 The Limbic System
The Limbic System Cerebral Components
Limbic lobe cortical areas
Diencephalic Components Corpus callosum Cingulate gyrus (superior
Thalamus portion of limbic lobe)
Parahippocampal gyrus
Anterior nuclei group
Hypothalamus (inferior portion of limbic lobe)
Dentate gyrus
Hypothalamic nuclei

Mammillary body Fornix

Other Components

Reticular formation Amygdaloid body

(not shown)
Olfactory
tract Hippocampus
b

The limbic system

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

The Cerebrum
Is the largest part of the brain
Controls all conscious thoughts and intellectual
functions
Processes somatic sensory and motor information

Gray Matter
In cerebral cortex and basal nuclei
White Matter
Deep to basal cortex
Around basal nuclei
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 14-9 The Cerebrum

Structures of the Cerebrum

Gyri of neural cortex
Increase surface area (number of cortical neurons)
Longitudinal fissure
Separates cerebral hemispheres
Lobes
Divisions of hemispheres

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

Structures of the Cerebrum

Central sulcus divides:
Anterior frontal lobe from posterior parietal lobe
Lateral sulcus divides:
Frontal lobe from temporal lobe
Parieto-occipital sulcus divides:
Parietal lobe from occipital lobe

Insula (island of cortex)

Lies medial (deep) to lateral sulcus

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 Precentral Central Postcentral
gyrus sulcus gyrus

Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe

Occipital
lobe

Temporal
Lateral sulcus lobe

Cerebellum

Pons

Medulla oblongata

b Lateral view

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 Insula

c Retractors along the lateral

sulcus showing the insula

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 Precentral gyrus Central sulcus Postcentral gyrus

Cingulate
gyrus

Parietal lobe
Frontal lobe
Parieto-
occipital
sulcus

Occipital
lobe

Pons
Temporal lobe Cerebellum

Medulla oblongata

d Midsagittal section

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

Three Functional Principles of the Cerebrum

1. Each cerebral hemisphere receives sensory
information from, and sends motor commands
to, the opposite side of the body
2. The two hemispheres have different functions,
although their structures are alike
3. Correspondence between a specific function
and a specific region of cerebral cortex is not
precise

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

White Matter of the Cerebrum

Association fibers
Connections within one hemisphere
Commissural fibers
Bands of fibers connecting two hemispheres
Projection fibers
Connect cerebrum with lower areas

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

Association Fibers (connections within one hemisphere)

Arcuate fibers
Are short fibers
Connect one gyrus to another
Longitudinal fasciculi
Are longer bundles
Connect frontal lobe to other lobes in same
hemisphere

Commissural Fibers
Corpus callosum
Anterior commissure
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 Association fibers:
Interconnect cortical areas within
the same hemisphere

Fibers of the White Matter of the Cerebrum

Fibers/Tracts Function

Arcuate fibers
a Longitudinal fasciculi
Lateral view

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

Projection Fibers
Pass through diencephalon
Link cerebral cortex with:
Diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum, and spinal
cord
Internal capsule
All ascending and descending projection fibers

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 Fibers of the White Matter of the Cerebrum
Fibers/Tracts Function

Commissures:
Longitudinal fissure
Corpus callosum
Anterior commissure

Projection fibers
Internal
capsule

b Anterior view

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

The Basal Nuclei

Are masses of gray matter
Are embedded in white matter of cerebrum
Direct subconscious activities:
The subconscious control of skeletal muscle tone
The coordination of learned movement patterns
(walking, lifting)

Parkinsons: decreased dopamine levels basal nuclei

more active

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

Anatomy of Basal Nuclei

Caudate nucleus
Curving, slender tail
Lentiform nucleus
Globus pallidus
Putamen

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 Head of caudate
nucleus Lentiform
nucleus

Tail of caudate
nucleus

Thalamus
Amygdaloid
body

a
The relative positions of the basal nuclei in the intact
brain, lateral view

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex

Central sulcus separates motor and sensory areas
Motor areas
Precentral gyrus of frontal lobe
Directs voluntary movements
Primary motor cortex
Is the surface of precentral gyrus
Pyramidal cells
Are neurons of primary motor cortex

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex

Sensory areas
Postcentral gyrus of parietal lobe
Receives somatic sensory information (touch,
pressure, pain, vibration, taste, and temperature)
Primary sensory cortex
Surface of postcentral gyrus

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

Special Sensory Cortexes

Visual cortex
Information from sight receptors
Auditory cortex
Information from sound receptors
Olfactory cortex
Information from odor receptors
Gustatory cortex
Information from taste receptors

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 Blue = Sensory areas
Green = Motor areas
Black = Association areas

Primary motor cortex

(pre-central gyrus) Central sulcus Primary sensory cortex
(post-central gyrus)
Somatic motor association
area (pre-motor cortex)
Somatic sensory
Prefrontal cortex association area
(emotions)
Visual association
area
Gustatory cortex Visual cortex

Auditory association area

Olfactory cortex
Auditory cortex
Major anatomical landmarks on the surface of
the left cerebral hemisphere.

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

Association Areas
Sensory association areas
Monitor and interpret arriving information at
sensory areas of cortex
Somatic sensory association area
Interprets input to primary sensory cortex (e.g.,
recognizes and responds to touch)

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

Sensory Association Areas

Visual association area
Interprets activity in visual cortex
Auditory association area
Monitors auditory cortex
Somatic motor association area (premotor
cortex)
Coordinates motor responses (learned
movements)

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

Integrative Centers
Are located in lobes and cortical areas of both
cerebral hemispheres
Receive information from association areas
Direct complex motor or analytical activities

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

General Interpretive Area

Also called Wernickes area
Present in only one hemisphere
Receives information from all sensory association
areas
Coordinates access to complex visual and
auditory memories

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

Other Integrative Areas

Speech center
Is associated with general interpretive area
Coordinates all vocalization functions (e.g.
breathing and vocalization for normal speech)
Prefrontal cortex of frontal lobe
Integrates information from sensory association
areas
Performs abstract intellectual activities (e.g.,
predicting consequences of actions)

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 Frontal eye field

Speech
center

Prefrontal General
cortex interpretive
area

b The left hemisphere generally contains the general interpretive

area and the speech center. The prefrontal cortex of each
hemisphere is involved with conscious intellectual functions.

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 14-9 The Cerebrum

Hemispheric Lateralization
Functional differences between left and right hemispheres
Each cerebral hemisphere performs certain functions that
are not ordinarily performed by the opposite hemisphere

The left brain (dominant hemisphere) controls:

Reading, writing, and math
Decision making
Speech and language
The right cerebral hemisphere relates to:
Senses (touch, smell, sight, taste, feel)
Recognition (faces, voice inflections)
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 14-9 The Cerebrum

Monitoring Brain Activity

Brain activity is assessed by an
electroencephalogram (EEG)
Electrodes are placed on the skull
Patterns of electrical activity (brain waves) are
printed out

Four Categories of Brain Waves

1. Alpha waves
2. Beta waves
3. Theta waves
4. Delta waves
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 a Alpha waves
Are characteristic
of normal resting
adults

0 Seconds 1 2 3 4

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 d Delta waves
occur in deep
sleep and in
certain patholo- 0 Seconds 1 2 3 4
gical conditions

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 14-10 Cranial Nerves

Cranial Nerves
12 pairs connected to brain
Four Classifications of Cranial Nerves
1. Sensory nerves: carriers of somatic sensory
information, including touch, pressure,
vibration, temperature, and pain
2. Special sensory nerves: carriers of sensations
such as smell, sight, hearing, and balance
3. Motor nerves: axons of somatic motor neurons
4. Mixed nerves: mixture of motor and sensory
fibers
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 14-10 Cranial Nerves

Cranial Nerves
Are classified by primary functions
May also have important secondary functions
Distributing autonomic fibers to peripheral ganglia
The 12 cranial nerve groups are identified by:
Primary function
Origin
Pathway
Destination

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 Olfactory nerve (N I)
(small sensory nerves for smell)

Olfactory tract

Optic nerve (N II)

(sensory nerve for vision)
Oculomotor nerve (N III)
(supplies 4 of 6 extrinsic
muscles that move the eye ball)

Pons

Vertebral artery

Medulla oblongata

Cerebellum

Spinal cord
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 Trochlear nerve (N IV)
(innervates superior oblique
muscle of the eye)

Trigeminal nerve (N V)
(BIG: 3 branches
ophthalmic, maxillary, mandibular)
Vagus nerve (N X) Abducens nerve (N VI)
extends beyond head (innervates lateral rectus
and neck! muscle of the eye
- vital to autonomic
control of visceral Facial nerve (N VII)
functions (heart, (Sensory and motor signals to
lungs, digestive tract) face, scalp, and tongue).
Vestibulocochlear nerve (N VIII)
(vestibular = balance, position,
movement; cochlear = hearing)
Glossopharyngeal nerve (N IX)
(tongue and pharynx = swallowing)

Hypoglossal nerve (N XII)

Innervates muscles of tongue
Accessory nerve (N XI)
Internal branch: swallowing
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 Cranial Reflexes
Cranial Reflexes
Monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflex arcs
Involve sensory and motor fibers of cranial nerves
Clinically useful to check cranial nerve for brain
damage

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 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.