INTRO: BIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO PSYCHOLOGY

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3 GENERAL POINTS to understand a complex machine, you might

● Perception occurs in your brain
● Mental activity and certain types of brain activity
are inseparable
● We should be cautious about what is an
explanation & what is not
FIELD OF BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
● It is the study of the physiological, evolutionary,
and developmental mechanisms of behavior and
experience.
● It emphasizes that the goal is to relate biology to
issues of psychology.
● Approximately synonymous with the terms:
○ Biopsychology
○ Psychobiology
○ Behavioral neuroscience
○ Physiological Psychology
● Neuroscience - structure and function of the
nervous system.
CAREER OPP | FIELD OF SPECIALIZATION
● Research Field: requires PhD and is employed
by universities, hospitals, pharmaceutical firms,
and research institutes.
● Practitioner Field of Psychology: their work is
not directly related to neuroscience. However,
they need to understand it to communicate with
a client’s physician.
● Medical Fields: Requires MD + 4 years of
additional study and practice in a specialization.
● Allied Medical Field: Requires a Master’s
Degree or more.
begin by examining a simpler machine.”
2. We are interested in animals for their own
sake. Humans are naturally curious and we
want to know about life.
Example, We would like to understand how bats
adapt in the dark.
3. What we learn about animals shed light on
human evolution. What makes us different from
chimpanzees and other primates.
4. Legal or ethical restrictions prevent certain
kinds of research on humans.
Example, investigators insert electrodes into the
brain cells of rats and other animals to
determine the relationship between brain activity.
DEGREES OF POSITION
● Minimalist - Tolerate certain types of animal
research but with to prohibit others depending
on the probable values of the research, the
amount of distress to the animal, and the type of
animal.
● Abolitionist - maintain that all animals have the
same rights as humans
3 Rs in Legal Standard:
● Reduction - reduction of animal numbers (using
fewer animals)
● Replacement - using computer models or other
substitutes for animal, when possible
● Refinement - modifying the procedures to
reduce pain and discomfort

CATEGORIES OF BEHAVIOR
BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
● Physiological Explanation - relates a behavior
to the activity of the brain and other organs
● Ontogenetic Explanation - term ontogenetic
comes from Greek roots meaning the origin (or
genesis) of being.
○ Describes how a structure or behavior
develops, including the influences of genes,
nutrition, experiences, and their interactions.
● Evolutionary Explanation - it reconstructs the
evolutionary history of a structure or behavior
● Functional Explanation - describes why a
structure or behavior evolved as it did.

USE OF ANIMALS IN RESEARCH

● Animal research is an important source of
information for biological psychology but
remains a highly controversial topic.
● Animals are used in many kinds of research
studies, some dealing with behavior and others
with the functions of the nervous system.

4 MAIN REASONS OF ANIMAL RESEARCH

1. The underlying mechanisms of behavior are
similar across species and sometimes easier
to study in a nonhuman species. “If you want
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THE CELLS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM AXON

● Neurons - receive information and transmit it to
other cells
● Glia (neuroglia) - the term glia, derived from a
Greek word meaning “glue,” reflects early
investigators’ idea that glia were like glue that
held the neurons together.
The human brain contains approximately 100 billion
individual neurons
● It is a thin fiber of constant diameter. (The term
axon comes from a Greek word meaning “axis.”)
The axon conveys an impulse toward other
neurons, an organ, or a muscle.
● It can be more than a meter in length, as in the
case of axons from your spinal cord to your feet.
● Myelin sheath - it is an insulating material that
covers the vertebrate axon. Invertebrate axons
do not have myelin sheaths.

STRUCTURES OF AN ANIMAL CELL PRESYNAPTIC TERMINAL

1. Membrane (or plasma membrane) - a ● Also known as an end bulb or bouton (French
structure that separates the inside of the cell for “button”).
from the outside environment. ● At that point the axon releases chemicals that
2. Nucleus - the structure that contains the cross through the junction between that neuron
chromosomes. and another cell.
3. Mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria) - is the
structure that performs metabolic activities, TYPES OF NEURON
providing the energy that the cell uses for all 1. Motor Neuron - receives excitation through its
activities dendrites and conducts impulses along its axon
4. Ribosomes - are the sites within a cell that to a muscle (Figure 1.4).
synthesize new protein molecules. Proteins
provide building materials for the cell and
facilitate chemical reactions
5. Endoplasmic reticulum - a network of thin
tubes that transport newly synthesized proteins
to other location

STRUCTURE OF A NEURON
● The most distinctive structural feature of 2. Sensory Neuron (receptor neuron) - is
neurons is their shape, which varies specialized at one end to be highly sensitive to a
● enormously. particular type of stimulation, such as light,
● Larger neurons contain four major components: sound, or touch (Figure 1.5.).
○ Dendrites
○ Soma (Cell body)
○ Axon
○ Presynaptic terminal
● The tiniest neurons may lack axons and
well-defined dendrites.

DENDRITES
● The term dendrite comes from a Greek root
word meaning “tree.” A dendrite branches like a
tree.
● The dendrite’s surface is lined with specialized
synaptic receptors, at which the dendrite
receives information from other neurons.
● Many dendrites contain dendritic spines, short
outgrowths that increase the surface area
available for synapses
TERMS ASSOCIATED W/ NEURONS
● Afferent axon - brings information into a
structure; Every sensory neuron is an afferent to
the rest of the nervous system
○ afferent starts with a as in admit
● Efferent axon - carries information away from a
structure; every motor neuron is an efferent from
the nervous system
○ efferent starts with e as in exit

CELL BODY OR SOMA

● Greek for “body”; plural: somata, contains the
nucleus, ribosomes, and mitochondria. Most of a
neuron’s metabolic work occurs here.
● In many neurons, the cell body is like the
dendrites— covered with synapses on its
surface.
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GLIA | TYPES OF GLIA
● Derived from a Greek word meaning “glue,”
reflects early investigators’ idea that glia were
like glue that held the neurons together.
● They do not transmit information like neurons.
● Glia outnumber neurons in the cerebral cortex
but neurons outnumber glia in several other
brain areas, especially the cerebellum
ASTROCYTES
● star-shaped, wrap around the synapses of
functionally related axons
● absorbs chemicals released by axons and later
returns those chemicals back to the axon to help
synchronize the activity of neurons.
● remove waste products as well, particularly
those created after neurons die.
● dilate the blood vessels to bring more nutrients
into brain areas that have heightened activity
● They act as a recycling system for glutamate
released by neurons (absorbing excess
glutamate then converting it to glutamine and
passing it back into the neurons).
● active partners of neurons in many ways.
MICROGLIA
● Very small cells that remove waste material as
well as viruses, fungi, and other
microorganisms.
● act as part of the immune system, removing
viruses and fungi from the brain.
● They proliferate after brain damage, removing
dead or damaged neurons
● They also contribute to learning by removing the
weakest synapses
OLIGODENDROCYTES & SCHWANN CELLS
● Oligodendrocytes in the brain and spinal cord
● Schwann cells in the periphery of the body
○ build the myelin sheaths that surround and
insulate certain vertebrate axons.
○ They also supply an axon with nutrients
necessary for proper functioning
RADIAL GLIA
● Guide the migration of neurons and their axons
and dendrites during embryonic development.
● During embryogenesis, Radial glia provide
physical and chemical guidance for the
migration of young neurons
THE BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER
Why we need a blood-brain barrier
● It is a mechanism that surrounds the brain and
blocks most chemicals from entering.
● The Immune system destroys damaged or
infected cells throughout the body, which the
body replaces easily.
● The Vertebral brain does not replace damaged
neurons, which is why it is vital for the blood
brain barrier to block incoming viruses or any
harmful materials.
How the blood-brain barrier works
● Active transport, a protein-mediated process that
expends energy to pump chemicals from the
blood into the brain.
● Chemicals that are actively transported into the
brain include glucose (the brain’s main fuel),
amino acids (the building blocks of proteins),
purines, choline, a few vitamins, and iron
● The blood–brain barrier is essential to health.
● In people with Alzheimer’s disease or similar
conditions, the endothelial cells lining the brain’s
blood vessels shrink, and harmful chemicals
enter the brain.
● Barrier poses a difficulty for treating brain
cancers, because nearly all the drugs used for
chemotherapy fail to cross the blood–brain
barrier.
NOURISHMENT OF VERTEBRATE NEURONS
● Vertebrate neurons depend almost entirely on
glucose, a sugar
● Glucose is the only nutrient that crosses the
blood–brain barrier in large quantities.
● A more likely problem is an inability to use
glucose. To use glucose, the body needs vitamin
B1 , thiamine.
● Prolonged thiamine deficiency, common in
chronic alcoholism, leads to death of neurons
and a condition called Korsakoff’s syndrome,
marked by severe memory impairments.
THE NERVE IMPULSE
● It is the electrical message that is transmitted
down the axon of a neuron.
● The impulse does not travel directly down the
axon but is regenerated at points along the axon
so that it is not weakened.
● The speed of nerve impulse ranges from less
than 1 meter/second to 100 meter/second.
RESTING POTENTIAL OF NEURON
● Refers to the state of the neuron prior to the
sending of a nerve impulse
● The difference in voltage.
● When at rest, the membrane maintains an
Electrical Gradient, also known as
polarization - a difference in electrical charge of
two locations, between the inside and outside of
the cell.
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○ The inside of the membrane is slightly
negative with respect to the outside
(approximately -70 millivolts)
● Messages in a neuron develop from
disturbances of the resting potential.
● The membrane is selectively permeable,
allowing some chemicals to pass more freely
than others.
○ Sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride.
When the membrane is at rest:
○ Sodium (Na+) channels are closed
○ Potassium (k+) channels are partially
closed allowing the slow passage of
potassium
Why a resting potential?
● The body invests much energy to operate the
sodium–potassium pump, which maintains the
resting potential. Why is it worth so much
energy? The resting potential prepares the
neuron to respond rapidly
FORCES ACTING ON SODIUM & POTASSIUM IONS
Certain types of stimulation that open the channels
permitting the flow of both ions:
● Sodium-potassium pump - a protein complex,
repeatedly transports three sodium ions out of
the cell while drawing two potassium ions into it.
○ Helps to maintain the electrical gradient
● The electrical gradient and the concentration
gradient work to pull sodium ions into the cell.
● The electrical gradient tends to pull potassium
ions into the cells, but they slowly leak out,
carrying a positive charge with them.
ACTION POTENTIAL OF NEURON
● Messages sent by axon are called action
potentials.
● It is a rapid depolarization of the neuron
● The action potential threshold varies from one
neuron to another
● Stimulation of neurons past the threshold of
excitation triggers a nerve impulse or action
potential.
● Hyperpolarization - which means increased
polarization.
● Depolarization- refers to decreasing the
polarization towards zero
● Threshold of excitement - refers to a level
above which any stimulation produces a
massive deporalization.
THE ALL OR NONE LAW
● is that the amplitude and velocity of an action
potential are independent of the intensity of the
stimulus that initiates it, provided that the
stimulus reaches the threshold.
MOLECULAR BASIS OF ACTION POTENTIAL
1. At the start, sodium ions are mostly outside the
neuron, and potassium ions are mostly inside.
2. When the membrane is depolarized, sodium and
potassium channels in the membrane open.
3. At the peak of the action potential, the sodium
channels close.
LOCAL ANESTHETIC
● Novocaine and Xylocaine, attach to the sodium
channels of the membrane, preventing sodium
ions from entering
PROPAGATION OF ACTION POTENTIAL
● The term propagation of the action potential
describes the transmission of an action potential
down an axon.
● In a motor neuron, the action potential begins at
the axon hillock (a swelling where the axon exits
the soma)
● The action potential does not directly travel
down the axon
MYELIN SHEATH
● Sheaths of myelin - increase the speed still
more, vertebrate axons evolved a special
mechanism
○ an insulating material composed of fats and
proteins.
● The myelin sheath of axons are interrupted by
short unmyelinated sections called nodes of
Ranvier
● At each node of Ranvier, the action potential is
regenerated by a chain of positively charged ion
pushed along by the previous segment
SALTATORY CONDUCTION
● Saltatory conduction - The jumping of action
potentials from node to node. “Saltare” means
“to jump”.
○ Provides rapid conduction of impulses
○ Conserves energy for the cell
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● Multiple sclerosis - disease in which the myelin

sheath is destroyed and associated with poor
muscle coordination and sometimes visual
impairments

REFRACTORY PERIOD
After an action potential, a neuron has a refractory
period during which time the neuron resists the
production of another action potential
● Absolute refractory period - the first part of the
period in which the membrane cannot produce
an action potential
● Relative refractory period - the second part in
which it takes a stronger than usual stimulus to
trigger an action potential

LOCAL NEURONS
● neurons without an axon exchange information
with only their closest neighbors.
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CONCEPT OF SYNAPSE
● Neurons communicate by transmitting
chemicals at junctions, called “synapses”
● In 1906, Charles Scott Sherrington
physiologically demonstrated that
communication between one neuron and the
next differs from communication along a single
axon.
● He inferred a specialized gap between neurons
and introduced the term synapse.
● Sherrington’s discovery was an amazing feat of
scientific reasoning, as he used behavioral
observations to infer the major properties of
synapses half a century before researchers had
the technology to measure those properties
directly
PROPERTIES OF SYNAPSE
Sherrington observed several properties of reflexes that
suggest special processes at the junctions between
neurons:
1. Reflexes are slower than conduction along an
axon.
2. Several weak stimuli presented at nearby places
or times produce a stronger reflex than one
stimulus alone does.
3. When one set of muscles becomes excited, a
different set becomes relaxed.
Reflex arc - circuit from sensory neuron to muscle
response
TEMPORAL SUMMATION
● Repeated stimuli within a brief time have a
cumulative effect
● Repeated stimuli can have a cumulative effect
and can produce a nerve impulse when a single
stimuli is too weak
● Summation over time
● Presynaptic neuron - neuron that delivers the
synaptic transmission
● Postsynaptic neuron - neuron that receives the
message
● Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) -
graded potential that decays over time and
space
● The cumulative effect of EPSPs are the basis for
temporal and spatial summation
SPATIAL SUMMATION
● Sherrington also noticed that several small
stimuli on a similar location produced a reflex
when a single stimuli did not
● This led to the idea of spatial summation or that
synaptic input from several locations can have a
cumulative effect and trigger a nerve impulse
● Spatial summation is critical to brain functioning
● Each neuron receives many incoming axons that
frequently produce synchronized responses
● Temporal summation and spatial summation
ordinarily occur together
● The order of a series of axons influences the
results
● Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) -
occurs when synaptic input selectively opens the
gates for potassium ions to leave the cell
(carrying a positive charge with them) or for
chloride ions to enter the cell (carrying a
negative charge).
○ Serves as an active “brake” that suppresses
excitation
CHEMICAL EVENTS AT SYNAPSE
DISCOVERY OF CHEMICAL TRANSMISSION
● Otto Loewi, a German physiologist was the first
to convincingly demonstrate that communication
across the synapse occurs via chemical means.
● Neurotransmitters - are chemicals that travel
across the synapse and allow communication
between neurons
● Chemical transmission predominantly occurs
throughout the nervous system.
SEQUENCE OF CHEMICAL EVENTS
1. The neuron synthesizes chemicals that serve as
neurotransmitters.
2. Action potentials travel down the axon.
3. The released molecules diffuse across the
narrow cleft, attach to receptors, and alter the
activity of the postsynaptic neuron
4. The neurotransmitter molecules separate from
their receptors
5. The neurotransmitter molecules may be taken
back into the presynaptic neuron for recycling or
they may diffuse away
6. Some postsynaptic cells send reverse
messages to control the further release of
neurotransmitters by presynaptic cells.
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ACTIVATING RECEPTORS OF POSTSYNAPTIC CELL
TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Major categories of neurotransmitters includes:
1. Amino acids - glutamate, GABA, glycine,
aspartate
2. Monoamines - indoleamines: serotonin ;
catecholamines: dopamine, norepinephrine,
epinephrine
3. Acetylcholine - modified amino acid
4. Neuropeptides (chains of amino acids) -
endorphins, substance P, neuropeptide Y
5. Purines - ATP, adenosine
6. Gasses - nitric oxide
SYNTHESIS OF TRANSMITTERS
● Most neurotransmitters are synthesized in the
presynaptic terminal, near the point of release.
● Neurons synthesize nearly all neurotransmitters
from amino acids, which from the body form
proteins in the diet.
● Each pathway begins with the substances found
in the diet.
○ Acetylcholine - is synthesized from choline
which is abundant in milk, egg, and peanuts.
○ Phenylalanine and tyrosine, present in
proteins, are precursors of domain,
norepinephrine and epinephrine.
● Tryptophan, an amino acid, a precursor to
serotonin.
○ Serotonin levels arise after you eat foods
rich in tryptophan, such as soy, maize
(American Corn).
○ Tryptophan has to compete with other
abundant large amino acids, such as
phenylalanine. (To increase serotonin,
decrease consumption of phenylalanine.)
STORAGE OF TRANSMITTERS
● Vesicles - tiny nearly spherical packets, where
the presynaptic terminal stores high
concentrations of neurotransmitters.
● MAO (monoamine oxidase) - breaks down
these transmitters into inactive chemicals,
thereby preventing the transmitters to
accumulate to harmful levels
RELEASE & DIFFUSION OF TRANSMITTER
● Exocytosis - burst of release of
neurotransmitter from the presynaptic neuron
○ Transmission across the synaptic cleft of a
neurotransmitter takes fewer than .01
microseconds.
● Inotropic effect - refers to when a
neurotransmitter attaches to receptors and
immediately opens ion channels
● Transmitter-gated or ligand-gated channels -
are channels controlled by a neurotransmitter.
● Most ionotropic effects rely on glutamate or
GABA
METABOTROPIC EFFECTS AND
SECOND MESSENGER SYSTEM
● Metabotropic Effects - occur when
neurotransmitters attach to a receptor and
initiates a sequence of slower and longer lasting
metabolic reactions.
● Metabotropic synapses use many
neurotransmitters such as dopamine,
norepinephrine, serotonin, and sometimes
glutamate and GABA.
● The portion inside the neuron activates a
G-protein, one that is coupled to guanosine
triphosphate (GTP), an energy storing molecule.
● G-protein increases the concentration of a
“second messenger”
● The second messenger communicates to areas
within the cell
○ May open or close ion channels, alter
production
NEUROPEPTIDES
● Neuromodulators - they are often called
Neuropeptides
○ Release requires repeated stimulation
○ Neuron synthesize most neurotransmitter in
presynaptic terminal, neuropeptides
○ Other neurotransmitters are released at the
axon, neuropeptides are released by
dendrites and cell body, and by the sides of
the axons
DRUGS THAT ACT BY BINDING TO RECEPTORS
● Hallucinogenic Drugs - that is, drugs that
distort perception, such as lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD)—chemically resemble
serotonin.
● Nicotine - compound present in tobacco,
stimulates a family of acetylcholine receptors,
conveniently known as nicotinic receptors.
Because nicotinic receptors are abundant on
neurons that release dopamine, nicotine
increases dopamine release
● Opiate Drugs - Familiar opiates include
morphine, heroin, and methadone. Morphine
and opiates have been used for centuries.
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INACTIVE & REUPTAKE OF NEUROTRANS 2 TYPES OF HORMONES

● Reuptake - occurs through special membrane ● Protein Hormones
proteins called transporters. ● Peptide Hormones - Composed of chains of
○ COMT (catechol-o-methyltransferase). The amino acids, these two attaches to membrane
breakdown products wash away and receptors, where they activate a second
eventually show up in the blood and urine. messenger within the cell—exactly like a
○ Stimulant drugs, including amphetamine and metabotropic synapse
cocaine, inhibit the transporters for
dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, LOCATION OF SOME MAJOR ENDOCRINE GLANDS
thus decreasing reuptake and prolonging the
effects of the neurotransmitters
● Methylphenidate (Ritalin), another stimulant
drug, is often prescribed for people with
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES

● Gap Junction - direct contact of a membrane of

one neuron to another membrane of another.

1. Pituitary gland - attached to the hypothalamus

HORMONES
● Hormone is a chemical secreted by cells in one
part of the body and conveyed by the blood to
influence other cells.
○ Endocrine (hormone-producing) glands -
are responsible for the production of
hormones.
○ Hormones are important for triggering
long-lasting changes in multiple parts of the
body.
& has two parts, which release different sets of
hormones:
● Posterior pituitary - composed of neural
tissue, can be considered an extension of
the hypothalamus. Neurons in the
hypothalamus synthesize the hormones
oxytocin and vasopressin (also known as
antidiuretic hormone)
● Anterior pituitary - composed of glandular
tissue, synthesizes six hormones, although
the hypothalamus controls their release.
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2. Hypothalamus - secretes releasing hormones,

which flow through the blood to the anterior
pituitary. There they stimulate or inhibit the
release of other hormones.
 NEUROANATOMY
Describing the Nervous System
• Central Nervous System (CNS) - Brain and spinal
cord
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - Connects the
brain and spinal cord
○ Somatic - consists of axons conveying
messages from the sense organs to the CNS
and from the CNS to the muscles
○ Autonomic - Controls involuntary muscles
■ Sympathetic: Expends energy
■ Parasympathetic: Conserves energy
Describing the Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - Connects the brain and
spinal cord
○ Autonomic - Controls the heart, intestines,
and other organs.
■ The autonomic nervous system has some
of its cell bodies within the brain or spinal
cord and some in clusters along the sides of
the spinal cord.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Sends and receives messages to regulate the
automatic behaviors of the body (heart rate, blood
pressure, respiration, digestion, etc.)
Divided into two subsystems:
• Sympathetic Nervous System
• Parasympathetic Nervous System
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Sympathetic Nervous System - is a network of nerves that
prepares the organs for a burst of rigorous activity
• Sympathetic axons prepare the organs for “fight
or flight”, such as by increasing breathing and
heart rate and decreasing digestive activity.
• Consists of chains of ganglia just to the left and
right of the spinal cord’s central regions (the
thoracic and lumbar areas).
Parasympathetic Nervous System - sometimes called
“rest and digest” system, facilitates vegetative, non-
emergency responses.
• is also known as the craniosacral system because
it consists of the cranial nerves and nerves from
the sacral spinal cord
• Comprised of long preganglionic axons extend
from the spinal cord to parasympathetic ganglia
close to each internal organ. Autonomic Nervous
System
• Comprised of shorter postganglionic fibers then
extend from the parasympathetic ganglia into the
organs themselves.
• The parasympathetic nervous system axons
release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine onto
the organs.
DESCRIBING THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Terms used to describe location when referring to the
nervous system include:
• Dorsal - means toward the back
• Ventral - means toward the stomach
SPINAL CORD
• Dorsal root ganglia - cell bodies of the sensory
neurons are in clusters of neurons outside the
spinal cord
• Communicates with the sense of organs and
muscle, except those of the head Spinal Cord
• Gray matter - located in the center of the cord is
densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites.
• White matter - composed mostly of myelinated
axons that carries information from the gray
matter to the brain or the other areas of the spinal
cord.
3 MAJOR DIVISION OF THE BRAIN
Hindbrain, Midbrain, Forebrain
• Posterior part of the brain.
• Consists of the medulla, the pons, and the
cerebellum.
• The medulla and pons, the midbrain, and certain
central structures of the forebrain constitute the
brainstem
THE MEDULLA OR MEDULLA OBLONGATA
• Located just above the spinal cord and regarded as
an enlarged extension of the spinal cord.
• control vital reflexes such as breathing, heart rate,
vomiting, salivation, coughing, and sneezing.
Cranial nerves: allow the medulla control
sensations from the head, muscle movement in
 the head, and many parasympathetic outputs to
the organ.

PONS

• Lies anterior and ventral to the medulla

• The term pons is Latin for “bridge”
• Along with the medulla, contains the reticular
formation and raphe system
• Works in conjunction to increase arousal and
readiness of other parts of the brain
• Reticular Formation - Descending portion is one of
several brain areas that control the motor areas of
the spinal cord.
○ Ascending portion sends output to much of
the cerebral cortex, selectively increasing
arousal and attention.
• Raphe System - also sends axon to much of the
forebrain, modifying the brain’s readiness to
respond to stimuli.