C1 | THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
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THE NEED FOR SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY
● The word science comes from the Latin word
scientia, which means knowledge.
● Methodology - The scientific technique used to
collect and evaluate psychological data.
● Commonsense psychology - everyday
nonscientific collection of psychological data
used to understand the social world and guide
our behavior.
● Scientific method - steps scientists take to
gather and verify information, answer questions,
explain relationships and communicate feelings.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN SCIENCE
● Scientific mentality - the psychologist’s goal of
prediction rests on the assumption that behavior
must follow a natural order; therefore it can be
predicted.
● Gathering empirical data - data that are
observable or experienced.
● Seeking general principles - modern scientists
go beyond cataloging observations to proposing
general principles, laws or theories that will
explain them.
● Laws - general scientific principles that explain
our universe and predict events.
● Good thinking - organized and rational thought,
characterized by open mindedness, objectivity,
and parsimony; a principal tool of the scientific
method.
○ Parsimony - an aspect of good thinking,
stating that the simplest explanation is
preferred until ruled out by conflicting
evidence; also known as Occam’s razor.
● Self-correction - modern scientists accept the
uncertainty of their own conclusions.
● Falsification - to challenge an existing
explanation or theory by testing a hypothesis
that follows logically from it and demonstrating
that this hypothesis is false.
● Publicizing results - scientists meet frequently
through professional and special interest groups
and attend professional conferences to
exchange information about their current work.
● Replication - the process of repeating research
procedures to verify that the outcome will be the
same as before; a principal tool of the scientific
method.
TOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
● Observation - they systematic noting and
recording of events; a principal tool of the
scientific method.
● Measurement - the scientific estimation of the
quantity, size, or quality of an observable event;
a principal tool of the scientific method.
● Experimentation - the process undertaken to
discover something new or to demonstrate that
events that have already occurred will occur
again under a specified set of conditions; a
principal tool of the scientific method.
○ Experimentation is not always possible. To
do an experiment, our predictions must be
testable.
○ Testable - capable of being tested; typically
used in reference to a hypothesis. Two
requirements must be met in order to have a
testable hypothesis: procedures for
manipulating the setting must exist, and the
predicted outcome must be observable.
SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION TO
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
● Identifying antecedent conditions - in a
scientific context, explanation means specifying
the antecedent conditions of an even or
behavior.
○ Antecedent conditions - all circumstances
that occur or exist before the event or
behavior to be explained; also called
antecedents.
● Comparing treatment conditions - in
psychology, it would be virtually impossible to
identify all the antecedents that affect the
behavior of research participants (also called
subjects) at a particular time.
○ Subject - the scientific term for an individual
who participates in research.
● Thus, we create specific sets of antecedent
conditions that we call treatments.
○ Treatment - a specific set of antecedent
conditions created by the experimenter and
presented to subjects to test its effect on
behavior.
● The psychology experiment - a controlled
procedure in which at least two different
treatment conditions are applied to subjects
whose behaviors are then measured and
compared to test a hypothesis about the effects
of the treatments on behavior.
● Establishing cause and effect - the greatest
value of the psychology experiment is that,
within the experiment, we can infer a cause and
effect relationship between the antecedent
conditions and the subjects’ behaviors.
➢ Cause and effect relationship - the
relationship between a particular behavior
and a set of antecedents that always
precedes it whereas other antecedents do
not so that the set is inferred to cause the
behavior.
➢ The type of cause and effect relationship we
establish through experiments is called a
temporal relationship. We look at the
differences in behavior after subjects are
exposed to the treatment not before.
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● Necessary versus sufficient conditions - we

need to distinguish between necessary and
sufficient conditions.
➢ E.g. Cutting down on fat intake may be a
sufficient condition to produce weight loss.
But is it a necessary condition? No. We also
could lose weight by increasing our activity
level, so reducing fat intake is not a
necessary condition.
➢ A car will not run without fuel. Therefore fuel
is a necessary condition for running a car.
C2 | RESEARCH ETHICS
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CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE TO CONSIDER
● Science is commonly thought of as amoral
● Science per se does not include values
● However, researchers bring their own values,
ethics, morals, and sense of right and wrong to
the work they do.
RESEARCH ETHICS
● Treating participants ethically and responsibly is
of foremost concern for a researcher
● Responsible research is aimed at advancing our
understanding of human behavior in ways that
will benefit humanity, not merely to satisfy idle
curiosity.
● Research that harms participants is undesirable
even if it may increase wisdom.
● A researcher is legally responsible for whatever
happens to the participants.
INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (IRB)
● In the U.S. law requires institutions engaging in
research to set up a review committee to
evaluate proposed studies before they are
conducted – Institutional Review Board (IRB)
EVOLUTION OF ETHICS IN RESEARCH
Research with human participants is a privilege, not
a right.
● While there are currently many different
guidelines governing research with human
participants, all share the same fundamental
principles of research ethics. Each demands
from the researcher respect for persons,
beneficence, and justice.
3 PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH
● Respect for Persons - every person is a person
with the right to make their own decisions
● Beneficence - obligation to minimize risk of
harm and maximize possible benefits
● Justice - fairness in both the burdens and
benefits of research
● Research must consider the safety and welfare
of all animal and human subjects.
PUTTING PARTICIPANTS AT RISK
● Its first task is to determine whether the research
puts participants at risk.
● A participant at risk is one who is more likely to
be harmed in some way by participating in the
research.
● Risk/benefit analysis – determining whether
any risk to the individual is outweighed by
potential benefits of knowledge to be gained.
APA GUIDELINES
● Applies to psychologists and students who
assume the role of psychologists by engaging in
research
● They are responsible for maintaining ethical
standards in all research conducted by them or
others they supervise.
INFORMED CONSENT
1. The participants agree to take part after having
been fully informed about the nature of the
study.
2. Consent must be given freely, without use of
force or coercion.
3. They must be free to drop out of the experiment
at any time.
4. Researchers must give a full explanation of the
procedures and answer any question about
them.
5. Researchers must make clear the potential risk
and benefits of the experiment.
6. Researchers must provide assurances that data
will remain private and confidential.
7. Subjects may not be asked to release the
researchers from liability or to waive their legal
rights in the case of negligence
8. Consent should be obtained in writing.
9. For minors and cognitively impaired, consent
from parents should be obtained.
10. They themselves can refuse to participate
Although consent needs to be written, researchers
need to verbally reinforce information that is
important for participants.
ON INFORMED CONSENT
● Informed consent is required from all
participants who are at risk because of the
nature of the research.
● In some cases, participants are only at minimal
risk – defined as risk that is no greater in
probability and severity that that ordinarily
encountered in daily life
DECEPTION & FULL DISCLOSURE
● Sometimes, the true purpose of the study is
disguised
● The consensus among researchers seems to be
that the use deception is most often justified by
the knowledge that is gained
● Many important psychological problems cannot
be studied without the use of deception.
● The deception must not influence a subject’s
decision to take part in the research
● Full disclosure of the true nature and purpose of
the research should be revealed after -
debriefing
● Whether the effects of deception can ever be
fully reversed by debriefing remains a serious
question.
● Regardless of any later explanation, the
participant’s anxiety and discomfort during the
experiment were real.
● Sometimes, extensive post-experimental
debriefings that detail the unreality of what has
gone through are necessary
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APA STANDARD 8.07: DECEPTION IN RESEARCH
a. Psychologists do not conduct a study involving
deception unless they have determined that the
use of deceptive techniques is justified by the
study’s significant prospective scientific
evidence. Educational, or applied value and that
effective non deceptive alternative procedures
are not feasible.
b. Psychologists do not deceive prospective
participants about research that is reasonably
expected to cause physical pain or severe
emotional distress.
c. Psychologists explain any deception that is an
integral feature of the design and conduct of an
experiment to participants as early as is feasible,
preferably at the conclusion of their participation,
but no later than the conclusion of the data
collection, and permit participants to withdraw
their data.
ANONYMITY & CONFIDENTIALITY
● To protect the privacy of participants
● Data should be collected anonymously or
identified by code of fictitious names.
● Use of aggregated or group data
● Data must be placed in a secure place, kept
confidential, and used only for the purposes
explained to the participant
● Data should not be a subject of gossip
2. Within your own report, identify the source of
any ideas, words, or information that are not
your own.
3. Identify any direct quotes by quotation marks at
the beginning and end of the quotes and
indicate where you got the quotes. Include the
page number.
4. Be careful with paraphrasing. There is a great
temptation to lift the whole phrases or catchy
words from another source. Use your own words
instead, or use quotes. Again, be sure to give
credit to your source.
5. Include a complete list of references at the end
of the report. In psychology, references are
written in APA style.
6. If in doubt about whether citation is necessary,
cite the source anyway. You will do no harm by
being especially cautious.
ETHICAL REPORTS
● Authorship credit should only be given to those
who made a major contribution to the research
or writing.
● Researchers should not take credit for the same
research more than once.
● The ethical solution is to cite original
publications when republishing data in a journal
article or republishing journal articles in an
edited volume.

FRAUD
● We should report our procedures and findings
honestly and accurately.
● Fraud - Data falsification
● Peer review -Research articles for publication
are reviewed by the editor and by several
experts in the field. Reviewers assess the merit
of a research and suggests improvements
● Replication - researchers attempt to replicate
the published findings of others, especially the
surprising, novel and importance
● The Competition nature of academic
psychology works against fraud

PLAGIARISM
● To plagiarize means to represent someone else’
ideas, words, or written work as your own.
● It is serious and can result to legal action
● Paraphrasing without giving credit is
representing someone else’s ideas as your own;
it is also plagiarism. Even if it is common
knowledge.
● Unfortunately, it is easy to plagiarize, even
without being aware of it.

TIPS TO AVOID PLAGIARISM

1. Take complete notes, w/c include citation of the
source: author’s name, title of the article, journal
name, volume number, issue number, the title of
the book, the names of editors, and the
publisher’s name, city and state.
C3 | ALTERNATIVES TO EXP: NON-EXPERIMENTAL
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NON EXPERIMENTAL APPROACHES
● Nonexperimental approaches do not create
levels of an independent variable nor randomly
assign subjects to these levels
● They are used where experiments are not
ethical or possible, or where we want to test
hypotheses in realistic conditions
Internal Validity
● the degree to which a researcher can establish a
causal relationship between the independent
and dependent variables
Ex: Laboratory Experiments have “potentially
high” internal validity
External Validity
● degree to which research findings can be
generalized to other settings and individuals
● Nonexperimental designs are said to have high
external validity Its generalizability is more
apparent in real world
DESCRIBING RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
Research can be described along two major dimensions:
1. The degree of manipulation of antecedent
conditions - varies from low to high (letting
whatever happens naturally to controlling it)
experiments à high manipulation,
nonexperimental low manipulation
2. The degree of imposition of units - the extent
to which the researcher limits the responses a
subject may contribute to the data (ex watching
whatever teens do, low imposition watching how
often teens listen to rap, high imposition)
PHENOMENOLOGY
● The description of an individual's immediate
experience instead of looking at behaviors
external to us, being with personal experience
as a source of data (no constraints)
● Process of observing may alter from person to
person making replication hard
● Describes behavior but does not explain
CASE STUDY
● Descriptive record of a single individual's
experiences or behaviors or both kept by an
outside observer, often used in clinical
psychology
5 major purposes of case study:
1. They are a source of inferences, hypotheses,
and theories ex by watching kids, researchers
made descriptions of normal development
2. They are a source for developing therapy
techniques
3. They allow the study of rare phenomena
4. They provide exceptions, or counter instances,
to accepted ideas, theories, or practices
5. They have persuasive and motivational value
FIELD STUDY
A. Naturalistic Observation Study
● The technique of observing behaviors as they
occur spontaneously in natural settings few
constraints researchers stay out of the way
so behaviors are not altered and settings are
kept as natural as possible
B. Participant-Observer Study
● Is a special kind of field conversation
researcher actually becomes part of the
group being studied. It may be problematic if
observer gets attached in anyway
ARCHIVAL STUDY
● It is a descriptive method in which already
existing records are reexamined for a new
purpose
● Archival research can be defined as the study of
existing data The existing data is collected to
answer research questions Existing data
sources may include statistical records, survey
archives, and written records
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
● Qualitative research is a research dealing with
phenomena that are difficult to or impossible to
quantify mathematically, such as beliefs,
meanings, attributes and symbols
● Relies on words rather than numbers relies on
self reports, personal narratives, and expression
of ideas study of phenomena that are contextual
(they cannot be understood without the context
that they appear in)
C4 | ALTERNATIVES TO EXP: SURVEYS & INTERVIEWS
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SURVEY RESEARCH
● Obtains data about opinions, attitudes,
preferences, and behaviors using questionnaires
or interviews
● Allows researchers to study private experience,
which cannot be directly observed
2 most common survey techniques:
1. Questionnaires
2. Face-to-face interviews
Advantages of survey approach
● We can efficiently collect large amounts of data
● Anonymous surveys can increase the accuracy
of answers to sensitive questions
● Surveys can allow us to draw inferences about
the causes of behavior and can complement
laboratory and field experiments
Limitation of survey approach
● The survey approach does not allow us to test
hypotheses about causal relationships because
we do not manipulate independent variables and
control extraneous variables
CONSTRUCTING SURVEYS
Major steps in constructing surveys:
1. Identify specific research objectives
2. Decide on the degree of imposition of units
(degree of response restriction)
3. Decide how you will analyze the survey data
How do researchers analyze data from each
question type?
● The number or percent of responses can be
reported for closed questions
● Open ended questions can be analyzed using
content analysis like Yepez’s INTERSECT, in
which responses are assigned to categories
using objective rules
What are three concerns when constructing
questions?
1. Keep items simple and unambiguous, and avoid
double negatives
2. Avoid double barreled ( questions that require
responses about two or more unrelated ideas
3. Use exhaustive response choices
CONSIDERATIONS FOR SURVEY ITEMS
➔ Subjects decide to refuse to answer surveys during
the start or first few questions. Engage subjects from
the start by asking interesting questions they will not
mind answering.
➔ Whenever possible, use commonly used response
options.
➔ Avoid value-laden questions that might make a
response seem embarrassing.
The first survey question should be:
1. relevant to the survey’s central topic
2. easy to answer
3. Interesting
4. answerable by most respondents
5. closed format
MAJOR QUESTION TYPES
1. Closed ended questions (structured) - can be
answered using a limited number of alternatives
and have a high imposition of units
Ex: “Would you be my girlfriend?”
2. Open-ended questions (open) - require that
participants respond with more than a yes or 1
10 rating and have a low imposition of units
Ex: “Why can't you be my girlfriend?”
MEASURING RESPONSES
● The best type of scale depends on the variable
you are studying and the level of precision you
desire
● Since psychological variables like traits,
attitudes, and preferences represent a
continuous dimension several levels of
measurement fit equally well
a. Nominal - assigns items to two or more distinct
categories that can be named using a shared
feature, but does not measure their magnitude.
b. Ordinal - measures the magnitude of the
dependent variable using ranks, but does not
assign precise values.
c. Interval - measures the magnitude of the DV
using equal intervals between values with no
absolute zero point.
d. Ratio - measures the magnitude of the
dependent variable using equal intervals
between values and an absolute zero.
How should we select measurement scales
● When working with variables like sociability,
psychologists often select the highest scale
since it provides more information and allows
analysis using more powerful statistics
RESPONSE STYLE
● Response styles - are tendencies to respond to
questions or test items without regard to their
actual wording
1. Willingness to answer - tendency to guess or
omit items when unsure
2. Position preference - selecting an answer
based on its position
Ex: students choosing C on multiple choice
exams
3. Yea-saying - agreeing with an item regardless
of its manifest content
4. Nay-saying - disagreeing with an item
regardless of its manifest content
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5. Manifest content - plain meaning of the words
printed on the page ; While we expect subjects
to respond to the manifest content of
questionnaires, they may ignore it when
answering questions about their feelings or
attitudes
6. Context effect - changes in question
interpretation due to their position within a
survey
● This problem is especially likely when
two questions are related and not
separated by buffer items (unrelated
questions)
7. Social desirability response set - representing
ourselves in a socially appropriate fashion when
responding to a question’s latent content
(underlying meaning)
Ex: You may dress formally for a job interview
instead of wearing your favorite jeans
INTERVIEWS
a. Structured interviews - Questions are asked
the same way each time This provides more
usable, quantifiable data.
b. Unstructured interviews - The interviewer can
explore interesting topics as they arise. These
data may not be usable for content analysis
Advantages of probability sampling over nonproba
1. A probability sample is more likely to represent
the population (external validity) than a
nonprobability sample
2. We know the exact odds of members of the
population being included in our sample. This
tells us whom the sample represents
NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING
● Subjects are not chosen at random
1. Quota sampling - select samples through
predetermined quotas that reflect the makeup of
the population
2. Convenience sampling - using any groups who
happen to be available
3. Purposive sampling - when nonrandom
samples are selected because the individuals
reflect a specific purpose of the study
4. Snowball sampling - researcher locates one or
a few people who fit the criteria and asks these
people to find more people

SAMPLING
● Population - consists of all people, animals, or
objects that share at least one characteristic.
● Sample - subset of the population of interest
(the population we’re studying)

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
➔ Selecting subjects in such a way that the odds of
their being in the study are known or can be
calculated begin by defining the sample you want to
study, then choose an unbiased method for selecting
the subjects

1. Simple random sampling - most basic form of

probability sampling; a portion of the whole
population is selected in an unbiased way; all
members of the population being studied must
have an equal chance of being selected
2. Systematic random sampling - all members of
the population are known and can be listed in an
unbiased way; a research picks the nth person;
n is determined by size of population and the
desired sample size
3. Stratified random sampling - used when
populations have distinct subgroups; obtained
by randomly sampling from people in each
subgroup in the same proportions as they exist
in the population
4. Cluster sampling - sample entire clusters or
naturally occurring groups that exist within the
population; used if individual sampling is
impossible due to cost or too large of a
population; less reliable
C5 | ALTERNATIVES TO EXP: CORRELATIONAL & QUASI
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CORRELATIONAL DESIGNS
● A correlational study is one that is designed to
determine the correlation, or degree of
relationship, between two traits, behaviors, or
events.
● When two things are correlated, changes in one
are associated with the changes in another.
● In a correlational study, the researchers
measure events without attempting to alter the
antecedent conditions in any way; the
researcher is simply asking how well the
measures go together.
CORRELATION
Properties of Correlation
● A Pearson correlation coefficient is used to
calculate simple correlations (between two
variables) and may be expressed as r(50) =
+.70, p = .001
1. Linearity - means how the relationship between
x and y can be plotted as a line (linear
relationship) or a curve (curvilinear relationship).
2. Sign - refers to whether the correlation
coefficient is positive or negative.
3. Magnitude - is the strength of the correlation
coefficient, ranging from -1 to +1.
4. Probability - is the likelihood of obtaining a
correlation coefficient of this magnitude due to
chance.
Coefficient of determination (r2)
● Estimates the amount of variability that can be
explained by a predictor variable.
● For example, Chaplin et al. (2000) showed that
handshake firmness accounted for 31% of the
variability of first impression positivity.
Scatterplot
● Are a graphic display of pairs of data points on
the x and y axes.
● A scatterplot illustrates the linearity, sign,
magnitude, and probability (indirectly) of a
correlation.
Regression line
● Or lines of best fit are lines drawn on scatter
plots. They illustrate mathematical equations
that best describe the linear relationship
between variables.
Range truncation
● It is an artificial restriction of the range of X and
Y that can reduce the strength of a correlation
coefficient.
● Correlation coefficient would be close to zero.
● It removes outliers.
Outliers
● These are extreme scores.
● They usually affect correlations by disturbing the
trends in the data.
WHY CORRELATION DOESN’T PROVE CAUSATION
➔ Since correlational studies do not create multiple
levels of an independent variable and randomly
assign subjects to conditions, they cannot
establish causal relationships.
➔ Correlation does not imply causation.
1. Casual direction - Since correlations are
symmetrical, A could cause B just as readily as
B could cause A.
Ex: Does insomnia cause depression or does
depression cause insomnia?
2. Bidirectional causation - Two variables—
insomnia and depression— may affect each
other.
3. Third variable problem - A third variable—
family conflict—may create the appearance that
insomnia and depression are related to each
other.
LINEAR REGRESSION
● Researchers use linear regression analysis
where two behaviors are strongly related, the
researcher can estimate a score on one of the
measured behaviors from a score on the other.
● Solving the regression equation would give us
an estimate of what that person’s performance
should be. The stronger the correlation the
better the prediction, in general.
MULTIPLE REGRESSION
● Researchers use multiple regression to predict
behavior measured by one variable based on
scores on two or more other variables.
● We could estimate vocabulary size using age
and television watching as predictor variables.
MULTIPLE CORRELATION
● Researchers use multiple correlation (R) when
they want to know whether there is a
relationship among three or more predictor
variables.
● We could measure age, television watching, and
vocabulary and find that R = +.
● Multiple correlation does not explain why the
three measures are related, but it suggests the
hypothesis that one variable is an important
“third variable” that could be explored in
subsequent research.
PARTIAL CORRELATION
● We should compute a partial correlation when
we want to hold one variable (age) constant to
measure its influence on a correlation between
two other variables (television watching and
vocabulary).
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CAUSAL MODELING
● Is the creation and testing of models that
suggest cause and effect relationships between
behaviors.
PATH ANALYSIS
● A researcher creates and tests models of
possible causal sequences using multiple
regression analysis where two or more variables
are used to predict behavior on a third variable
● A researcher creates models of possible causal
sequences. It uses beta weights to construct
path models, outlining possible causal
sequences for the related behaviors
CROSS-LAGGED PANEL
● A researcher measures relationships over time
and these are used to suggest a causal path.
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
● Quasi means “seeming like” Quasi experiments
superficially resemble experiments, but lack their
required manipulation of antecedent conditions
and/or random assignment to conditions.
● They may study the effects of preexisting
antecedent conditions, life events or subject
characteristics on behavior.
Ex: A quasi experiment might compare the
incidence of Alzheimer’s disease in patients who
used ibuprofen since age 50 and those who did
not
● In experiments, researchers randomly assign
subjects to antecedent conditions that they
create.
Ex: An experiment might randomly assign
subjects to either daily ibuprofen or aspirin use,
and then measure their incidence of Alzheimer’s
When should we use quasi-experiments?
● We should use quasi experiments when we
cannot or should not manipulate antecedent
conditions.
● Quasi experiments could study the effect of
spouse abuse on the frequency of child abuse.
EX POST FACTO
● It means “after the fact.”
● A researcher examines the effects of already
existing subject variables (like gender or
personality type), but does not manipulate them
NONEQUIVALENT GROUPS
● A nonequivalent groups design compares the
effects of treatments on pre existing groups of
subjects
Ex: A researcher could install fluorescent
lighting in Company A and incandescent lighting
in Company B and then assess productivity
LONGITUDINAL & CROSS-SECTIONAL
● Longitudinal designs - the same group of
subjects is measured at different points of time
to determine the effect of time on behavior
● Cross-sectional studies - subjects at different
developmental stages (classes) are compared at
the same point in time
PRETEST/POSTTEST DESIGNS
● A researcher measures behavior before and
after an event
● For example Practice GRE test 1 > six week
preparation course > Practice GRE test 2
Which problems reduce its internal validity?
● There is no control group which receives a
different level of the IV (no preparation course)
● The results may be confounded by practice
effects (also called pretest sensitization) due
to less anxiety during the posttest and learning
caused by review of pretest answers
SOLOMON 4-GROUP DESIGN
This variation on a pretest/posttest design includes four
conditions:
1. A group that received the pretest, treatment and
posttest
2. A nonequivalent control group that received only
the pretest and posttest
3. A group that received the treatment and a
posttest
4. A group that only received the posttest