EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
NOTES FROM CHAPTERS 1-2
*Social Loafing- The tendency of
individuals to put forth less effort
when they are part of the group.
Max Ringelmann; made an
experiment about social loafing
wherein a sensitive gauge was used to
measure how hard they pulled the
rope.
*Diffusion of Responsibility-a
possible reason for social loafing.
Latane’s studies of social loafing.
*Psychology-The science of behavior.
- Take a scientific approach to
understanding behavior.
- Knowledge about psychological
processes is based on scientific
evidence accumulated through
research.
THE NEED FOR SCIENTIFIC
PSYCHOLOGY
*Commonsense psychology- the kind
of everyday, nonscientific data
gathering that shapes our expectations
and beliefs and directs our behavior
toward others.
NON-SCIENTIFIC SOURCES OF DATA
*Confirmation Bias- Once we believe
we know something, we tend to
overlook instances that might
disconfirm our beliefs and we seek
confirmatory instances of behavior.
Example: superstitious beliefs,
horoscope, tarot reading
NON-SCIENTIFIC INFERENCE
*Inference- drawing conclusions
Example: stereotyping
*Gambler’s Fallacy- This occurs when
an individual erroneously believes that
a certain random event is less likely or
more likely to happen based on the
outcome of a previous event or series
of events.
*Overconfidence bias- A cognitive
error that leads individuals to
overestimate their predictions,
guesses, and explanations, leading to
poor decision-making.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The steps scientists take to gather and
verify information, answer questions,
explain relationships, and
communicate this information to
others.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN
SCIENCE
*Scientific mentality- Behavior must
follow a natural order; therefore it can
be predicted.
 Alfred North Whitehead-
Postulated that faith in an organized
universe is essential to science.
Determinism- A belief that
there are specifiable causes for the
way people behave and that these
causes can be discovered through
research.
*Gathering Empirical Data- Data that
are observable and can be
experienced. Can be verified or
disproved through investigation.
Empirical-observable
*Seeking General Principles-
General principles; laws or theories
that will explain them.
Law- always true. Principles
that have the generality to apply to all
situations.
Theories- pull together, or
unify, diverse sets of scientific facts
into an organizing scheme that can be
used to predict new examples of
behavior.
Karl Popper- a modern
philosopher of science, wrote that
science progresses only through
progressively better theories.
*Good Thinking- Collection and
interpretation of data should be done
in a systematic, objective, and rational
way.
We should be open to new ideas
even when they contradict our prior
beliefs and expectations
Principle of Parsimony-
Choosing the simplest scientific
explanation that fits the evidence, also
known as Occam’s Razor/Ockham’s
Razor by a scholastic philosopher,
William of Ockham.
*Self-Correction- The content of
science changes as we acquire new
scientific information and old
information is reevaluated in light of
new facts.
*Publicizing Results- Professional
and special interest groups attend
professional conferences to exchange
information about their current work.
*Replication- The process of
repeating research procedures to
verify that the outcome will be the
same as before; a principle tool of the
scientific method.
4 MAJOR OBJECTIVES OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
*Description- Systematic and
unbiased account of the observed
characteristics of behaviors.
Case study: an outside observer
records the behaviors or experiences,
or both, of a single individual.
Field Studies: Observational
studies of groups of people (or
animals) in real-life settings.
Observers can gather descriptive data
about many kinds of social and
cultural experiences.
*Prediction-Capacity for knowing in
advance when certain behaviors would
be expected to occur because we have
identified other conditions with which
the behaviors are linked or associated.
Correlational (relationship
between different events, behaviors, or
experiences) and Quasi-experimental
designs (look for systematic
differences among groups of people)
are commonly used to predict
behavior.
“Correlation does not imply causation”
*Explanation- includes knowledge of
the conditions that reliably reproduce
the occurrence of a behavior.
*Control- Refers to the application of
what has been learned about behavior.
Once a behavior has been explained
through experimentation, it may be
possible to use that knowledge to
effect change or improve behavior.
-It is rarely the intent of
experimentation.
Applied Research- research that is
designed to solve real-world problems.
Basic Research- research designed to
test theories or explain psychological
phenomena.
The Scientific Method: Tools of
Psychological Science
1. Observation- Is the systematic
noting and recording of events.
Only observable events can be
studied scientifically.
2. Measurements- the assignment
of numerical values to objects or
events or their characteristics
according to conventional tools.
3. Experimentation- a process
undertaken to test a hypothesis
that particular behavioral
events will occur reliably in
certain, specifiable situations.
Extraneous variable-is any variable
not being investigated that has the
potential to affect the outcome of a
research study.
SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION IN
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
*Identifying Antecedent Conditions-
Scientific context, explanation means
specifying the antecedent conditions
of an event or behavior that we want
to explain.
Antecedents are just another term for
independent variables.
*Comparing Treatment Conditions-
We compare different treatment
conditions so that we can test our
explanations of behaviors
systematically and scientifically.
 Treatments- Specific sets of
antecedent conditions.
*The Psychology Experiment- A
controlled procedure in which at least
two different treatment conditions are
applied to subjects. The subjects'
behaviors are then measured and
compared to test a hypothesis about
the effects of those treatments on
behavior.
Between-subjects design- An
experimental design in which subjects
receive only one kind of treatment.
Within-subjects design-
Presenting all treatments to each
subject and measure the effect of each
treatment after it is presented.
*Establishing Cause and Effect-
Within the experiment, we can infer a
cause-and-effect relationship between
antecedent conditions and the
subject’s behaviors.
Temporal Relationship- a type
of cause-and-effect relationship we
establish through experiments
because the time difference that
occurs in the relationship.
*Necessary vs Sufficient Conditions-
The cause-and-effect relationships
established through scientific research
commonly involve identifying
sufficient conditions. When we seek
causes, we rarely seek conditions that
are both necessary and sufficient.
FROM PSEUDOSCIENCE TO
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
*Wilhelm Wundt- The first
experimental psychologist opened his
laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in
1879.
*G. Stanley Hall- One of Wundt’s
students; went on to open the first
psychology laboratory in the US in
1883 at John Hopkins University.
*Mental Philosophy- Included the
study of consciousness and mental
processes and was based on the
premise that the human mind begins
as a blank slate, gaining knowledge of
the world through sensory
experiences.
*Phrenology- Involved assessing
traits and dispositions by measuring
the size and location of bumps on the
skull.
faculties-Individual traits were
believed to reside in specific areas in
the brain.
*Physiognomy- Involved using facial
features to evaluate traits, mental
capacity and skills.
* Mesmerism- invented by an
Austrian physician Franz Mesmer who
believed that fluids in the body ebbed
and flowed by magnetic principles and
that both physical and mental illness
could be cured by realigning fluids
using magnets or his hands.
*Spiritualism- involved purported
contact with ghosts and spirits of the
dead.
CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH ETHICS
*Research Ethics- aimed at advancing
our understanding of feelings,
thoughts, and behaviors in
ways that will ultimately benefit
humanity.
*The Institutional Review Board
(IRB) must evaluate proposed studies
before they are conducted. The
primary duty of a review board is to
ensure that the safety of research
participants is adequately protected.
The IRB’s first task is to decide
whether the proposed study puts the
subjects at risk.
Risk/benefit analysis: The IRB
must determine whether any risks to
the individual are outweighed by
potential benefits or the importance of
the knowledge to be gained.
*Informed Consent- means that the
subject agrees to participate after
having been fully informed about the
nature of the study.
-Individuals must give their
consent freely, without the use of force,
duress, or coercion.
- They must be free to drop out
at any time.
-The subjects must be given full
explanation of the procedures to be
followed.
- They must inform the subjects
about the potential risks and benefits.
-They must provide assurances
that all data will remain private and
confidential.
*Consent- should be obtained in
writing, and subjects should receive a
copy to keep. If a minor, or cognitively
impaired, researchers need to obtain
consent from a parent or legal
guardian.
*Assent- or agreement of minor
children ages 7 and above is usually a
requirement of their participation.
THE EVOLUTION OF ETHICS IN
RESEARCH
*After World War 2, ethics came to the
forefront after the discoveries of brutal
experiments conducted on Jewish
concentration camp prisoners by abt
200 Nazi Doctors.
More than 7000 prisoners were
forced to be subjects in cruel
experiments that broke all the rules
and norms of medical research.
*Nuremberg Code of 1947- a code of
ethical standards for scientific
research.
*Belmont Report- In 1979, the US
Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare stated government policy on
research involving human subjects.
1. Respect for persons-right to
make his or her own decisions
about research.
2. Beneficence- minimize risk of
harm and maximize possible
benefits.
3. Justice- fairness in both the
burdens and benefits of
research.
*Americal Psychological Association
Guidelines- publishes its own set of
ethical standards (2002)
*Fully informed consent- is required
from all participants who are at risk
because of the nature of the research.
In some cases, participants are
considered to be at minimal risk.
*Deception and Full Disclosure-
Psychologists do not conduct a study
involving deception unless they have
determined that the use of deceptive
techniques is justified by the study’s
significant prospective scientific,
educational, or applied value and that
effective nondeceptive alternative
procedures are not feasible.
*Psychologists provide a prompt
opportunity for participants to obtain
appropriate information about the
nature, results, and conclusions of the
research, and they take reasonable
steps to correct any misconceptions
that participants may have of which
the psychologists are aware.
*Anonymity and Confidentiality-
Maintaining anonymity and
confidentiality is another important
consideration for researchers. It is our
responsibility to protect the
privacy of research participants.
PROTECTING THE WELFARE OF
ANIMAL SUBJECTS
*Animal welfare- the human care and
treatment of animals.
Researchers must enrich the
environment of nonhuman primates
by including means for engaging in
species-typical activities.
*Primates and other animals known to
live in social groups in nature must be
provided with opportunities to
socialize.
*Institutional animal care and use
committee (IACUC)-Institutions
engaged in animal research must have
a review board to evaluate animal
research before it can be conducted.
*APA Standard 8.09: Humane Care
and Use of Animals in Research
a. Psychologists acquire, care for, use,
and dispose of animals in
compliance with current federal, state,
and local laws and regulations,
and with professional standards
FRAUD IN SCIENCE
*Data Falsification- A breach of the
ethical principle stated succinctly in
APA standard 8.10a:” Psychologists do
not fabricate data”
LINE OF DEFENSE AGAINST DATA
FALSIFICATION
Falsification
1. Peer review- The reviewers’
task is to assess the merit of a
submission; reviewers go over
each submission with a
fine-tooth comb, looking for
problems and suggesting
improvements.
2. Replication- Researchers often
attempt to replicate the
published findings of others,
particularly if those findings are
surprising, novel, or important.
If data have been falsified, it is
unlikely that the experiment
will be successfully replicated.
3. Competitive nature of
academic psychology: Tenure
and promotion within academic
departments of psychology are
partly based on research
productivity. Competition
among colleagues for limited
research resources can be a
strong deterrent to fraud.
*Plagiarism- plagiarizing means to
represent someone else’s ideas, words,
or written work as your own.
Plagiarism is a serious breach of ethics
and can result in legal action.
Plagiarism is a very serious problem in
the academic world. It is a form of
academic theft and can be deliberate
or accidental; it can be of “ideas or of
language” (Sowden, 2005: 226)
*Ethical Reports-Ethical Principles of
Psychologists and Code of Conduct
provides further guidance concerning
ethics and research reports. Section
8.12(a) states, “Psychologists take
responsibility and credit, including
authorship credit, only for work they
have actually performed or to which
they have substantially contributed”
(APA, 2002).