EX: social learning theory it explain media violence and
aggression it say that children copy the violence media they
 “Psychology is the science of behaviour” -observed and not
rely on biased opinion
 Avoid generalization
Generalization-you already concluded something that is not
logically justified by sufficient and unbiased evidence
Common-sense Psychology
 it is our everyday non-scientific collection of psychological
data used to understand the social world and guide our
behaviour
 Common sense belief derived data that we collect from our
own experiences and other people, but can also affect where
the information came from
 it is over confidence bias
 Our predictions, or guesses tend to feel much more correct
than they actually are because we have data (accurate or
not) that supports our belief
Steps scientists take to gather and verify information,
and answer questions, explain relationships, and communicate
findings
Important characteristics of a scientific method
1) the scientific mentality- Research psychologists believe
that there are specifiable causes for the way people behave
and that these causes can be discovered through research
(ex: social experiment to see the pattern behaviour of
someone)
2) gathering empirical data-empirical data are observable or
experienced information received by senses
3) seek general principles
A. law-principle that have the generality to apply to all
situations
B. theory-a set of general principles that attempts to explain
and predict behaviour or other phenomena
"Old theories can be replaced by new theories w/ greater
explanatory power
4) Good thinking our approach to the collection &
interpretation of data should be systematic objective and
rational. it in includes being open to new ideas even they
contradict their prior beliefs avoid letting private beliefs and
expectations influence observations and conclusion
A. parsimony - it is the simplicity & clarity of thoughts
5) self-correction - we should accept the uncertainty of our
own conclusion old theories can be replaced by new ones
with more evidences that can support their conclusion
watch or play over the internet but it was replace by the
cognitive priming theory it says that if the children are
exposed to a violent media they tend to develop a “script” it
is the automatic behaviour or response if the child was set
into the violent situation
6) publicize results to avoid duplication of researches and to
exchange information with fellow researchers
7) replication- repeats procedures and obtains the same
results
3 main tools of scientific method
1) observation - systematic noting and recording of events
"Only events that are observable can be studied scientifically
(internal process like feelings thinking and problem solving can be
observed using the events that can be observed ex; give them an
intelligence test and the questionnaire must be consistent
2) measurement- assignment of numerical values to objects,
events or characteristics according to conventional rules
Ex; make a questionnaire about loneliness and checked it to a
registered rpm
3) experimentation- it is a process of testing a hypothesis in
which a particular behaviour will occur in certain situations
predictions must be testable
1. Must have one procedures in manipulating the setting
Ex; you want to know if the subject you studied will
retain longer into your in if you stay in hot places of cold places
2. Predicted outcome must be observable
3. Measurable outcome (Research should be ethical)
Cause and effect refers to a relationship between two
phenomena in which one phenomenon is the reason behind the
other. (Cause-independent variable, Effect- dependent variable)
Hawthorne effect- The alteration of behaviour by the subjects of a
study due to their awareness of being observed.
 Psychology as an Experimental Science did not emerge until
late 1800s
 Before 1800s, Psychology was not even considered a
branch of Science but a branch of Philosophy
 It is under the name of MENTAL PHILOSOPHY Back then
Psychology was not even a Helping Profession the practice
of psychology before
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 Before 1800s people practices were "Pseudoscientific" 3. Mesmerism / Animal Magnetism

Pseudoscience gives the appearance of being

scientific but has no true scientific basis. They don't use any written
tests or any kind of scientific method to study people

1. PHRENOLOGY
 Invented by Franz Mesmer
If you have a dent or bump
in this area of your head,  He believed that fluids in the body ebbed and flowed by
such as your upper part of magnetic principles and that both physical and mental illness
your head they assumed
that you may have a
could be cured by realigning these fluids
problem in your self-  once the patient is hypnotized Franz Mesmer will assumed
esteem that they will be cured

 Assessing traits and dispositions by measuring the size and

location of bumps and indentations on the skull of a person
 Founded by Franz Joseph Gall
 Phrenology is an out-dated practice. Pseudoscientific
practice no scientific basis

king Luis the xvi

 king Luis the xvi was curious about Mesmerism and he
investigated it, only to found out that There was no evidence
of magnetic forces in our body fluids but they continue the
practice of mesmerism they just Removed the idea of
Magnetic Fluid, but the act itself still remain. They change
mesmerism name to hypnosis
 JEAN CHARCOT practices the hypnosis and Sigmund
Freud saw it. Freud use the practice of hypnosis and use it
to cure hysteria
 Hysteria is also known as wondering womb, most common
illness among women.
 Freud team up with Joseph Breuer. While the patients were
in a highly suggestible state of hypnosis Joseph Breuer ask
them Describe what kind of problems, conflicts and fears do
you have. Only to found out that the patients became
extremely emotional when they describing their problems
then they immediately felt relieve after they emerged from
the hypnotic state. Patients didn't remember what they say
during the hypnosis state and it is beyond their awareness
(unconscious). Freud and Joseph Breuer discover the
2. Physiognomy unconscious mind and how it influence a person's
psychological disorder
 Though using hypnosis Freud and Joseph Breuer can
recover some traumatic event in the person’s unconscious
mind. When the patient release the traumatic event in their
unconsciousness they will suddenly feel relief.
 Freud let go the practice of hypnosis and under go to the
process of free association

3. SPIRITUALISM
 Involves purported contact with ghosts & spirits of the dead
 includes exorcism, talking to the dead ancestor and
 It involves using facial features particularly the appearance of telekinesis
eyes, nose, chin and forehead. to evaluate a persons' traits
and mental capacity and skills

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4. Teophination

G. STANLEY HALL
trephining or making a burr hole (the verb trepan  Wilhelm Wundt gained some follower some of them is G.
derives from Old French from Medieval Latin trepanum from Greek STANLEY HALL
trypanon, literally "borer, auger") is a surgical intervention in which
 G. STANLEY HALL Established the first Psychological
a hole is drilled or scraped into the human skull.
Laboratory in U.S.

5. Bloodletting

Bloodletting (or blood-letting) is the withdrawal of blood

from a patient to prevent or cure illness and disease. Psychology as a part of Science that deals with facts
and truth-seeking thus Science is amoral DOES NOT INCLUDE
VALUES OR ETHICS

we have the right to perform any experiment

IMAGINABLE just for the sake of new knowledge because a
researcher's concern in recruiting and using subjects is to treat
them ethically & responsibly and We are legally responsible for
what happens to our participants. We can be in jail for practicing
unethical research

Wilhelm Wundt
An administrative body established to protect the rights
 Father of Experimental Psychology/ Father of Psychology
and welfare of human research subjects recruited to participate in
 First Experimental Psychologist
research activities. When were about to practice some experiment
 First used the term "Psychologist" we must think if the participant will be safe while conducting the
 Birth of Psychological Science was when he opened the first research and give them INFORMED CONSENT
Psychology Laboratory in 1879
 Wilhelm Wundt realise the Psychology from the branch of
philosophy and it is BEGINNING OF MODERN
PSYCHOLOGY
 1881 Wundt published the first journal in Psychology Entitled Evaluate Animal Research before it can be conducted
"Philosophical Studies". He named it Philosophical Studies
and not physiological studies because physiological studies
is already a taken name and It was a study about
Telekinesis, Clairvoyance and everything about Psychic  Written Agreement
 Wilhelm Wundt used scientific method to study the human  A subject's voluntary agreement to participate in a research
sensory experiences but he was more focus on the project after the nature and purpose of study has been
perception (sense of sight) of human. He show some image explained. it will give an insight on the participant what will
to the patient then the patient will describe it as fast as they happen in the experiment
can thus it is the beginning of including science in
psychology, Wilhelm Wundt study used experimentation
Reminders:
1. Individuals must give their consent freely. Without the use of
force or coercion
2. Consent should be obtained in writing and subjects should
receive a copy to keep

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3. The person must also understand that he/she is free to drop
out of the experiment any time
if my participant is minor or special child You will need to
obtain consent from their parents or legal guardians and
Subjects (minor or special child) must be given as much
explanation that they can understand so they would know if
they still want to participate or not, and even if parents
allowed their children they can withdraw at the experiment
The experiment was conducted by JOHN B. WATSON it
was inspired by by Ivan Pavlov's Classical Conditioning on
dogs
Watson and Raynor presented Little Albert with a white rat
and he showed no fear. Watson then presented the rat with a loud
bang that startled Little Albert and made him cry. After the
continuous association of the white rat and loud noise, Little Albert
was classically conditioned to experience fear at the sight of the
rat. Albert's fear generalized to other stimuli that were similar to the
rat, including a fur coat, some cotton wool, and a Father Christmas
mask.
The mother of albert have a little idea about the experiment
and JOHN B. WATSON give her 1$ to let them use albert at the
experiment
Example of consent form
Thus it must also include:
1. Nature of the Experiment
2. Overview of the Procedures that will occur
3. How long will the experiment take
4. Potential risks (if any) and benefits
5. What they will be required to do
During World War 2 Some the famous doctors conduct an
inhumane experimentation on the Nazi prisoners; includes;
JOSEF MENGELE
He was also known as “angel of death” and
interested at twins. When there is a twin arrived at the camp he
will immediately conduct experiments on the twin inmates in
pseudoscientific racial studies. He conducts the experiment to
know how to treat an illness, to know the stability of Human
Endurance, etc.
One of his experiment is he sewed two twins together
without anaesthesia they died 3 day later because of lose blood he
also try to separate a conjoint twins
That’s why we have an ethicao principoes and inform
consent to avoid this kind of experiment most importantly
in the medical field
DECEPTION (applicable in conform research) Will use this only if the
use of deceptive technique is justified. If we really need to hide the
purpose of the study to obtain the best result
DEBRIEFING (After conducting experiment) explains the true nature
and purpose of the study. Explain why you need to hide the nature
of the study and discuss to them what did you find out in other
words you need to explain in your subject or participant why you
need to use deception in your research, make sure that the
deception don’t have long time effect on the participants or
subjects.
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 Experiment on 1987 lead by Edward Donnersten,
Dabiel Niel Linz, Steven Penrod they investigated the Effects of
Long Term Exposure on Violent HY Pornography and Sexually
Degrading Explicit Films on their Beliefs about Rape and Sexual
Objectification on Women, their participants is undergraduates
males college student, the experiment includes a showing a violent
pornography sexually degraded films on the participants.
Finding; The participants who join the research are
more likely Callous attitude toward women they become
Insensitive towards the feelings of women thus Also considered
raping women if they won't be caught in addition they Showed less
empathy to rape victims. Victim Blaming. They say that "Women
really wanted to be raped".
Debriefing can’t their beliefs that are why they undergo
on Extensive Post-Experimental Debriefings.
Extensive Post-Experimental Debriefings- to remove the harmful
beliefs resulted by the experiment
Lesson: Be very careful in conducting an Experiment
The data collected from the participant is confidential
and cannot be traced in any particular individual. Identity of the
individual subject is also not known to the researcher. (they may
include their code name to maintain their confidentiality)
We collect group data not an individual data. You can
use individual data unless your reaserch is olny focus on one
individual (you can’t reveal a participant name even if it is individual
data)
Participants are guaranteed that the identified
information and individual responses will not be shared to anyone
who is not involved in the study. The data must also be stored in a
secured place
Report procedures and findings honestly and
accurately (that’s why we have a research adviser; to check our
work before we publish it and to avoid falsification of data.)
PLAGIARISM-Represent someone else's ideas words, or written work
as your own
Non Experimental Research Design (role: observer)
 First, Researchers in non-experimental research collect data
without intervening or introducing treatments to our subjects
 Researchers can only observe the behaviors of their subjects
in their own natural setting, without manipulating any
independent variables.
 They will just simply measure variables as they naturally
occur.
 We use non-experimental approach if experiments aren't
POSSIBLE, PRACTICAL and ETHICAL
 Non Experimental Research Design commonly do is to
observe, interview, gather information, and give survey and
questionnaire
Phenomenology involves trying to understand the
essence of a phenomenon by examining the views of people who
have experienced that phenomenon.
Example: a psychologist is interested in studying the phenomenon
of near-dead experience. Psychologist will search a participant that
experience it. Psychologist will use in-depth interviews to know
what their subjects experience in this kind of phenomenon Maybe
some of the subjects will say that they saw heaven and hell some
may even say that they even saw god buddha allah aliens and so
on after the interview is done the psychologist will look at all the
answers of their subjects and will try to look at a pattern maybe
those people who saw hell heaven and god may have the same
religions such as christianity and maybe those people no man who
saw buddha they may have a religion of buddhists. You can also
cover any phenomenon that you like it can be from rare situations,
like self-claimed alien abductee or a person with dissociative
identity disorder to something that is completely ordinary like this
least or students or students who are experiencing anxiety in
schools.
It is basically used to study individuals. It is a
descriptive record made by an observer of an individual's
experiences, behaviors or both.
example of a famous case study in psychology. This is the case
study of the wild boy of aviron in the late 1700s residents near a
wooded arya and friends spotted a child roaming alone It was
believed that he may be abandoned by his parents in the woods or
he might have lost his way when he was still a toddler in the 1800s
He came out of the woods for good and the residents nearby took
care of him. The child couldn't speak, don’t want to wear clothes
and always run for an hour. He actually behaved like an animal
that's why people believe that he had been raised by animals. So a
lot of experts helped to educate him and even one position gave
him the name victor. However, all their programs were met with
mixed success victor never really learned to speak or write fluently,
but he learned how to dress learn civil toilet habits could write a
few letters and acquired some very basic language
comprehension. Therefore victor wasn't able to tell his whole life
story to others. So whatever happened before he was taken care
of is still a mystery. It was also stated in his case study that he
probably suffered irreversible functional brain damage from the
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isolation that he experienced. He never really mastered
communicating with people. However, no matter how wild he
become he responded immediately to treatment and regained a
kind of partial humanity.
Remember that case study allows us to study a rare
phenomenon like the case of victor and the case study is also
commonly conducted in clinical settings case study is conducted to
a patients have in-depth understanding on their situation and for
psychologists to know the best therapy technique for the patient.
Field studies are non-experimental approaches used in
the field or in real-life settings
Participants/subjects get to be free and behave like
their true selves and unaware that they are in the experiment.
The important thing that we need to know in field
studies is that we don't have a controlled environment we can’t
manipulate the surroundings of our subjects field studies is directly
linked to real world social scientists and psychologists often use
field experiments to perform blind studies where their subjects are
not even aware that they are already in an experiment.
A. Naturalistic Observation Studies
This technique involves studying the spontaneous behavior of
participants in natural surroundings. The researcher simply records
what they see in whatever way they can.
Example:
We are studying wild animals if experiment is controlled these
animals will be in a zoo and if naturalistic they will be in their
natural habitat.
Applying to psychology:
a psychology wanted to know if teachers give equal amount of
attention to their male and female students the psychology
observed the classroom with permission to the teacher but the
teacher didn't know that she is the one being observed. They found
out is that most of the teachers gave more attention to girls than
boys. There’s no interversion made the psychology Only observed
the behavior in their natural setting which is inside the classroom
B. Participant-Observer Studies
In this kind of field study, the researcher actually becomes a part of
the group being studied to get a deeper insight into their lives
participant observations can also be either covert or overt
 Covert
Researcher will go 'undercover'. They will hide their real
identity and the purpose of their study to gain deeper insight to
their study.
Example of a covert participant observer studies was conducted
by a reporter named Nellie Bly. She faked having a mental illness
to be admitted women's lunatic asylum, To know how doctors treat
the patients in the Asylum when she was admitted to the asylum,
she found out that patients were forced to take ice-cold bats and
remain in wet clothes for ours. They were also forced to sit still on
benches without speaking or moving for 12 hours straight their
foods were even rotten bread, meat, and dirty water. those who
complained or resisted were beaten up by the staff and some staff
also threatened the patients with sexual violence this discovery led
nellie bly to publish her book 10 days in a mad house back over the
man the researcher reveals his or true identity and purpose to the
group and asked permission to observe
 OVERT
The researcher reveals his or her true identity and
purpose to the group. Researchers also asks permission to
observe
example, you wanted to know the lifestyle of a tribe, you should
ask a permission on a tribe leader. And you need to live there for
how many days to gain their trust so that you can get accurate
data
REMINDER
FIELD STUDIES ARE DIFFERENT FROM FIELD EXPERIMENT
FIELD STUDIES You can't manipulate variables, You are just an
observer while FIELD EXPERIMENT You can manipulate your
Independent Variable However, you have no control over your
participants and environment
Example: For example, a field experiment conducted by
cunningham wherein he wants to know if what kind of conversation
starter does men or women prefer. He organize different group to
approach differently. Group 1 greet the opposite sex while Group 2
instructed to have a flirty introduction. They go to seven different
bars and try to approach different people what they found out is
that most women at the bar prefer simple introductory like hi or
hello girls, while the male at bar don’t really care what the
approach of a opposite sex to them they respond positively
whenever its simple or flirty introduction. We manipulated the
independent variable: Type of Conversation Starter, also the
subject didn’t know tthat they are in a expaeriment and we have no
contor on the environment
Archival study is a descriptive research method in
which already existing records are reexamined for new purpose
Common examples of archival research sources are census
records or survey data that was collected in the past.
Example: you want to know if the cases of depression is getting
high in a institution, we can use their past record and compare it on
the current record
It is concerned with understanding human behavior
from the informants perspective. Data are collected through
observing and interviewing of participants. It relies on words rather
than numbers for the data being collected.
Example conducted by researcher peng lingvist and his
colleagues. They wanted to understand the variety of reactions
that families had on the suicide committed by a member of their
family. They interviewed the families of 10 teenage suicide victims
The interviews were relatively unstructured free flow conversation
and what they found out is that one of the most important themes
that emerged from this interviews was that even as life returned to
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normal the families continued to struggle with the question of why
their loved one committed suicide this struggle appeared to be
especially difficult for families in which the suicide was most
unexpected
 Techniques or methods used to gather data in non-
experimental research design.
 How to construct surveys and measuring responses
 Different Sampling Methods
 a useful way of obtaining information about peoples's
opinions, attitudes, preferences, and behaviors by simply
asking
 It also allows us to gather data about the person's
experiences, feelings, thoughts, and motives that are hard to
observe directly.
 We can also use survey to collect data about sensitive topics
two common survey techniques in psychology research
Two forms of SURVEYS:
1. WRITTEN QUESTIONNAIRES- can be handed out or be
sent out through email and nowadays we can use Google
form for written questionnaires surveys. Now that were in the
midst of pandemic we can use Google form for the written
questionnaires
2. INTERVIEWS- it can be face to face telephone or video call.
Now that were in the misdt of pandemic we can use google
meet or zoom form for the interviews.
1. First Map out your research objectives, make them as specific
as possible.
Example:
Your study is about wanting to know why some married
couples get divorced if you’re going to cite the question there, it
could be too broad like asking “what made you decide to file for a
divorce?” you might won't get specific answers. that's why you
need to list down some specific aspect of your topics that you want
to evaluate like in this research i want to evaluate issues of
communication, constant conflict, lack of intimacy, incompatibilities,
partners abuse and addiction. So once you all list down all the
things you want to evaluate in the research topic it will be a guide
at constructing questionnaires.
2. Design the survey items.
We will going to choose if our question should closed questions,
open-ended questions or it can also be a combination of both
2.1 Structured Questions
 restricted answers of respondents
 Respondents won't need to explain their answer
 It can all be answered with a yes or no can be scaled
in 1-10
 Structured questions are advisable if you’re interested
in group data and you don’t care about the underlying
reason
Example of question
“Do you sleep in the same bed with your partner?”
“Do you go to bed with an unresolved conflict with your partner?”
“Do you basically hurt your partner intentionally?”
“On a scale of one to ten how much do you love your partner?”
Example using the actual event:
Your objective in the research is to know Preferred
Mode of Learning of CAS students and you don’t really want to
know the underlying reason, so your questionnaire should be
“which mode of learning do you prefer synchronous, asynchronous,
or modular?” and you can add “What kind of internet connection do
you have in your home Wi-Fi or mobile data?” so with the gathered
data you can finally answer your objective.
2.2 Open-ended Questions
 Respondent tells their opinions and feelings for that
question
Examples:
“What are your thoughts about divorce?”
“How important is constant communication in a relationship?”
2.3 Combination of Both
 Include both Closed and Open Questions
 we can ask the respondents a close question then ask
them to second Open-ended Questions to elaborate their
answers and will give you more detailed answers
Examples:
“How much time do you spend with your partner?” that
is a closed question then add another question “It's necessary to
spend quality time with your partner why or why not?” and that is
an open-ended question
 Used to measure a response
 Statistical test depends on the level of measurement and
objective of
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1. NOMINAL SCALE
 A nominal scale groups items together into categories that
can be named.
 Your data will be categorical rather than numbers
 can be categorized
EXAMPLES OF NOMINAL VARIABLES ARE
1. religion- religion can be categorized with Christianity,
Buddhism, and Islam
2. races- it can also be categorized with Asian,
American, and Hispanic etc.
Example:
I wanted to know whether there is a significant
difference between a person's gender and their perception and to
test their perception ill show them this image (indicated below). I
wanted to know if male and female have the same perception
about the picture
NOMINAL VARIABLES:
1. Gender: Male or Female
2. Perception on the Optical Illusion: Old Woman or Young Lady
Conducting a research:
I decided that my population will be students from CAS
and i want to have equal number of respondents in each gender
therefore i randomly ask 50 male students and 50 female students
I will ask them first "are you willing to participate?" and add another
question "I will just show you an optical illusion, and tell me what
the first image that you will see is". Once they agreed I show them
the picture and ask them “what did they see first? The Old lady or
young lady?” i jotted down their answers and then i separated the
answers of male and female participants since i want to know if
there’s difference the perception between male and female. When i
look at their answers i found out that most males on response they
mostly see a young lady whereas most of the girls saw an old
woman so that is an example of a nominal variable when applied
to a research
2. ORDINAL SCALE
 Rank ordering of response items
 Can be ranked to lowest to highest
EXAMPLES OF ORDINAL VARIABLE
1. Educational Attainment-Elementary, High School,
College, and Masters
2. Academic Honor Roll- 3rd Honor Roll, 2nd Honor
Roll, and 1st Honor Roll
Example:
I wanted to know who the most preferred presidential
candidate of CAS students. So i randomly asked 50 students from
each department I ask them to Rank your most preferred
presidential president From 5 being the most preferred and 1 for
least preferred by using that I finally rank the most preferred
presidential candidate
3. INTERVAL SCALE
 It measures magnitude or quantitative size using
measures with equal intervals between values. (ZERO
HAS A MEANING AND INTERPRETATION)
 Interval scale also has no absolute zero or trues zero
point
Likert scale- is a type of rating scale used to measure attitudes or
opinions (Using Likert scale has no absolute zero)
Example: (no absolute zero or true zero point)
0 degree Celsius in this case zero has a meaning
Applying to survey:
I want to know what department in CAS has the most
stressed out students so i randomly selected 50 participants in
each department let so i gave them a survey with questions that
would measure how stressed they are the question may include:
“How often have you been upset because of something
unexpected?”, “How often do you feel you can cope with all the
things you have to do?”, so they can respond never, almost never,
sometimes, fairly often, or very often
4. RATIO SCALE
 Ratio scale has an absolute zero point.
 The value of zero on the variable indicates a complete
absence of the variable (ZERO HAS NO MEANING
AND INTERPRETATION)
 if youre interested in raw scores of your participants
you can use ratio scale(raw score- correct answer)
Example:
Percentage in a preferred candidate, when we say 0%
it means literal Zero that no one voted in a certain candidate
NOTE:
Using percentage; if you obtained 0 raw score it will
geminately to be 50% not 0%
REMEMBER: FINDINGS MUST BE BACKED UP WITH
STATISTICS
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 There are specific statistics designated in each level of
measurement that was used and what is the objective of the study
It is deciding who the subjects will be and then
selecting them.
Ideally we conduct a research as much as possible we
want to include the population that we want to study however most
of the time it’s not possible, because when we say population it
includes all people you want to study, it might be time consuming
and costly to use all the population that’s why we rely on sample
Sample
 A sample of subjects is a group that is subset of the
population of interest
 Data collected from samples can be used to draw
interferences about a population without examining all its
members
How accurately we can generalize our findings from a given
sample to a population depends on its REPRESENTATIVENESS
or How closely the sample mirrors the larger population
 it involves selecting students in such a way that the
odds of their being in the study are known and can be
calculated
 Researcher must use unbiased method for selecting
subjects
 Subjects must undergo random selection
 Any member of the population has an equal
opportunity to be selected.
4 TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLES
1.1 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLE
 Most basic form of probability sampling
 This is a sampling method wherein a portion of a
whole population is selected in an unbiased way.
 All members of the population being studied must have
an equal chance of being selected.
1.2 LOTTERY METHOD/ FISH BOWL METHOD
 method in which each member of the population is
assigned with a number and all their numbers will be
put inside a bowl of any container and then the
researcher will randomly pick from that bowl
1.3 SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLE
 In cases where all members of the population are
known and can be listed in an unbiased way.
 a researcher may select every nth person from the
population
 n-determined by the size of the population and the
desired sample size.
 (divide the sample size to obtained the nth person)
1.4 STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
 If population contains distinct sub group we will use
Stratified Random Sampling
 It is obtained by randomly sampling from people in
each subgroup in the same proportions as they exist in
the population
 (sample size/population size) x stratum size
1.5 CLUSTER SAMPLE
We will use this if we have a large population size that
can be grouped into multiple sub groups
 The subjects are not chosen at random
 We will only use this if probability sampling is not
possible
 Low Validity and Reliability
4 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
2.1 Quota Sampling
 Researchers select samples through predetermined quotas
that are intended to reflect the makeup of the population
 Individuals are not selected by random
 There are no constraints on how the researcher selects
people to interview as long as the quota is filled.
2.2 Convenience Sampling
 Data is obtained by using any groups who happen to be
available.
 Anyone who is free can participate
2.3 Purposive Sampling
 Nonrandom samples are selected because they reflect a
specific purpose of the study.
2.4 Snowball Sampling
 Researcher locates one or a few people who fit the sample
criterion and asks these people to locate or lead them to
additional individuals.
 Used when you know few individuals who will meet your
criteria for your participants and they may help you to gather
more participants
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1. CONSTRUCTING HYPOTHESIS
2. DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
3. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
 hypothesis are called speculations guess or hunch
 The thesis, or main idea of an experiment
 It is the statement about predicted relationship between at
least 2 variables
 Research hypothesis is designed to fit the type of research
design that has been selected.(Experimental or Non-
Experimental)
NON-EXPERIMENTAL
 we cannot predict the relationship of 2 variables (do not
include cause and effect)
 Non-experimental hypothesis is a statement of your
predictions of how events, traits, behaviors might be related.
 REMEMBER Non-experimental designs that do not restrict
subject’s response, do not typically include a hypothesis like
phenomenology, case study and qualitative studies. because
you are intended to explore and describe behaviors as they
naturally occur It's hard to make a prediction about behaviors
or events that might or might not occur
Characteristics of an Experimental Hypothesis
1. Synthetic statements. - Synthetic statements are those that
can be either true or false.
2. Testable- Manipulating and measuring the result of our
experiment should be possible.
3. Falsifiable (Disprovable)- One of the possible outcomes of the
designed experiment must be an answer, that if obtained, would
disprove the hypothesis.
4. Parsimonious- Expressed in simplest explanation possible
1. Ask a question or state a problem
Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that
you want to answer
Example:
"Does having an alcoholic parent affect a childs academic
performance?"
2. Do a preliminary research
Look for theories and previous studies to help you form
educated assumptions about what your research will find
Example: Parental alcoholrelated disorders and school per
formance in 16yearolds a Swedish national cohort study (2016)
Researchers Berg, Bäck, Vinnerljung, & Hjer.
Study they found out that in Sweden alcohol-related
disorders in both mothers and fathers are associated with lower
school performance in their children at age 15 to 16 years old. now
with my gathered data i can assume that there is indeed a
relationship between alcoholic variant and academic performance
FORMULATE A HYPOTHESIS
With all your gathered data you should have some
idea of what you'll expect to find therefore you may now start to
construct a hypothesis
HYPOTHESIS INCLUDES:
 The relevant variables (IV and DV)
 The specific group being studied (Population)
 Aim/objective of your study
Example:
 IV (independent variable): Alcoholic Parents
 DV (dependent variable): Academic Performance.
 Population: SHS Students in Lucban, Quezon
 Aim: To know if having an Alcoholic parent (IV) would
affect the academic performance of the children (DV)
States there is a statistically significant relationship
between two variables.
ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS depends on our objective:
1. If-then or Cause-effect (Non-Directional)-simply states
that IV Affects DV
Example Hypothesis:
"Having an alcoholic parent affects the academic performance of
SHS students in Lucban, Quezon"
Make use of words such as: AFFECT, EFFECT, INFLUENCE,
IMPACT, and CHANGE
2. Difference (Non-Directional)
3. Correlation (Directional)
Describe the relationship between variables and measure
the strength of their relationship
 2 kinds of Correlation
1. POSITIVE RELATIONSHIP
IV and DV both moves in the same direction (both
increase, both decrease)
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Example:
can studying longer make a student's grade higher?, and then let's
say that i did my research and i found that if a person spends more
time with reading and studying there is a high tendency that they
can be one of the honor roles therefore I hypothesize that there is a
positive correlation between time spent on studying and academic
rates among students of lspu
2. NEGATIVE RELATIONSHIP
IV and DV move in the opposite direction
Example:
"What effect does daily use of social media have on the attention
span of people?" let's say i did my research and found out that
some studies claims that the more you spend time on social media
the less attention span you will have therefore i hypothesize that
there is a negative correlation between time spent on social media
and attention span of students in lspu
Make use of words such as: Increase vs Decrease, Higher vs
Lower, More vs Less, and Better vs Worse
Comparing Two Groups The hypothesis can state what
difference you expect to find between them.
"The difference between the academic performance of students
who chose modular and synchronous mode of learning"
Hypothesis: "Students who chose synchronous mode of learning
performed academically better than those who chose modular
REEMBER: If our research involves statistical hypothesis testing, We
will also have to write a null hypothesis.
States there is no statistically significant relationship between
two variables.
The default position that there is no association between the
variables
Since our research would require you to have a statistical
treatment you will need to include a null hypothesis the null
hypothesis is written as ho while the alternative hypothesis is h1 or
ha
Example:
Ho: "Having an alcoholic parent has no effect on the academic
performance of SHS students in Lucban, Quezon."
In the simplest experiments, an experimental
hypothesis states a potential relationship between 2 variables and
those are independent and dependent variable
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (IV)
 Is the dimension that the experimenter intentionally
manipulates
 In an experimental research IV must be given at least two
possible values in every experiment and these values are
called levels of independent variable
Example of called levels of independent variable
IV: Chocolates
What kind of chocolate will give the athletes more
energy so I give them a white chocolate, dark chocolate, and
chocolate with nuts
Levels of independent variable types of chocolate:
white chocolate, dark chocolate, and chocolate with nuts
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
The variable that we measure An indicator of change
in behavior Its values are assumed to depend on the values of
independent variable
Example:
DV: Level of Energy of the Athletes
Depends on types of chocolate (IV)
Defining our IV and DV
 CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION
- You will just tell your readers what the concept of your variable
means (the definition came from the dictionary)
 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION.
- It specifies the precise meaning of a variable within an experiment
(how do use and measure your variable)
Example:
Our study is to identify the "Effect of classical music to the
memorization capabilities among preschooler"
IV: Classical Music
Conceptual Definition ng Classical Music:
"Music that has been composed by musicians who are trained in
the art of writing rausic (composing) and written down in music
notation so that other musicians can play it this is what defines
classical music"
Operational definition:
I played Beethoven while they are memorizing so my definition will
be classical music is beethoven music played inside the classroom
DV: MEMORIZATION CAPABILITY
Conceptual definition of memorization
The process of committing something to memory
Operational definition of memorization
"Number of scores obtained in IRT Test (A memorization Test)"
REMBER:
Reliability and validity measures our dependent variable
Means consistency of a research study or measuring
test.There is a High Reliability if our study produces
Example:
"Effect of classical music to the memorization capabilities among
preschooler"
Result: Increase Memorization Capabilities when listening to
Classical Music
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 And when someone adopt our study in the same
condition you should get the same result and if you get the same
result therefore it has high Reliability
4 WAYS OF MEASURING RELIABILITY
1. Interrater Reliability
Is the extent to which two or more raters (or observers, coders,
examiners) agree. (Asking another people who are knowledgeable
about your study)
Example:
You go a psychiatrist and then they diagnosed you having an OCD
(Obsessive Compulsive Disorder) and you’re not satisfy with the
result so you go to another psychiatrist for second opinion then
they diagnosed you with the same so therefore it has a high
Reliability
2. Test-Retest Reliability
Can be checked by comparing scores of people who have been
measured twice with the same instrument. (retesting with the
participant it should have a time interval like 1 week if they got the
same result therefore it has a high Reliability)
3. Interitem Reliability
The extent to which different parts of the questionnaire, test or
other instruments designed to assess the same variable if it will
attain a consistent result.
3.1 SPLIT HALF RELIABILITY
Involves splitting the test into 2 halves at random and
computing a coefficient of reliability between the scores obtained
on the two halves. (dividing the test into 2 halves and the question
should be random after answering the test if they got the same
result therefore it has a high Reliability)
3.2 INTERNAL CONSISTENCY
Evaluates the internal consistency of the entire set of
items using statistical tests such as Cronbach Alpha
It is like measuring split-half reliability for all possible
ways a test could be split up into halves.
4. Parallel Form/ Alternate Form Reliability
The extent to which a measurement tool measures
what is it supposed to measures.
5 TYPES OF VALIDITY
1. Face validity
 It just simply addresses whether our measuring
instrument looks valid
 Does our test LOOKS like it can measure what its
supposed to measure?
2. Content Validity
 The extent to which the individual items on a test are
relevant to the content area that that it is testing
 EACH OF THE ITEM IN OUR TEST SHOULD BE
RELEVANT
 we focus on the individual items
3. Construct Validity
 Most important aspect of validity
 It is the degree to which an operational de finition
accurately represents the construct it is intended to
manipulate or measure.
 we focus on the test as a whole
4. Predictive Validity
 It is the degree to which a measuring instruments
yields in formation allowing prediction of actual
behavior or performance
 HOW WELL OUR TEST CAN PREDICT A BEHAVIOR
Example: we conduct a cognative ability test and If a person got a
High Score on Cognitive Test he/she will be a great employee in
the company if that’s happens therefore it has a high validity
5. Concurrent Validity
 Reflects whether scores on the measuring device
correlate with scores obtained from another method of
measuring the same concept
 We will have a high level of concurrent validity if we
compare the scores in other test that measure the
same variable
Differentiate the within subject design or subject design
Example: I want to know which more effective setting for studying.
A room with classical music or a room with rock and roll music. In a
between subject design i will put group A with a room of classical
music and group B with a room of classical music
 A design which each subject takes part in more than one
condition of the experiment; it is also called a Repeated-
Measures Design.
 All of them will receive the two treatment group A and group
B will be put to classical music and rock and roll music
Disadvantage:
Fatigue effects- It can cause performance to decline as the
experiment goes on.
Practice effect- Participants might obtained the mastery of your
test or your treatment
Preventing the Disadvantage:
1. Subject-by-Subject Counter Balancing
Example: which room setting is effective to the participants? We
have a room for classical music and a room with rock and roll
music. If I will use the same participants in both condition there is a
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high tendency that it can have a practice effect, there’s a possibility
that they might practice the test and obtain a high score in the
second condition so to avoid this I’ll do the Subject-by-Subject
Counter Balancing. I will divide them into two groups but they will
receive the both condition Group 1: Each participant will be placed
in the classical room first and then followed by rock music room. In
this setting I can able to know if they have improvement thru the
music in the room or either the practice effects Group 2: Each
participant will be placed in the rock music room first and then
followed by classical music room.
It is a design in which different subjects take part in
each condition of the experiment. Different people test each
condition so that each person is only exposed in one treatment.
TYPES OF BETWEEN SUBJECT DESIGNS.
1 Two-Group Design It is used when only two treatment
conditions are needed.
2. Two Independent Group Design: Subjects are placed in each
of two treatment condition through random assignment. (Randomly
assign participants in different groups)
Control group-no treatment
Experimental group- there’s a treatment
3. Matched Pair Group Design In this design, there are also 2
groups of subjects, but the researcher will assign the respondents
by matching them or equating them on a specific characteristic
2 ways of Matched Pair Group Design
Match at the beginning of the experiment
Example: Participants from LSPU students who have consulted a
Psychiatrist or Psychologist. I want to know if a coffee that claims
to relieve a stress will work on them or this other brand of coffee
with the same claim. After I screen my participants i randomly
assign them into two groups who will drink feel good coffee or
which group will drink the good coffee.
Another example: my Qualifiers for Participants must have high
level of Anxiety I want to know if their anxiety will improve with
cognitive behavioural or psychotherapy, I will give them a test first
determine the level of their anxiety the interpretation of scores will
be 70-99 = High Level of Anxiety, 40- 69 = Normal Level of
Anxiety, 10 - 39 = Low Level of Anxiety; therefore ill only pick the
participants who obtained 70-99 = High Level of Anxiety then ill
randomly assigned them to a cognitive behavioural group or
psychotherapy group
4. Multiple Group Design - we use this if we need more than two
treatment designs.
Example: I want to know which chocolate will give some stamina
to the athlete, the experimentation includes Control Group that will
Not receive any Treatment or No Chocolate they will just run in to
the oval, next group I gave them dark chocolate, next group I gave
them white chocolate and the last group I gave them chocolate with
nuts
Reminder
1.) How many Groups do we have? Are we using Within or
Between Subject Design?
2.) What is the level of measurement of our dependent variable?
3.) What is the purpose of our Test (To know the difference,
relationship or correlation)
EXPERIMENT 1
1.) Design: Between Subject Design. Two Independent Group
2) Level of Measurement of dependent variable: Interval or Ratio
3.) Purpose: To know whether there is a difference between our
variables
Example: Is there a significant difference in the Mathematics
performance of the students when grouped according to their
gender profile? The two independent groups will be group A would
be the performance of males and our group B would be the
performance of females now we treat them independently and our
ultimate interest is the difference in the dependent variable scores
between these two groups now the student's mathematics
performance will be based on their score success which is an
example of a ratio scale therefore the statistics that i will be using
here is an independent t test
T test
 an independent t test it can also be called to sample t, test
independent sample, t test, or student's
 it is an inferential statistical test that determines whether
there is a statistically significant difference between the
means in two unrelated groups so unrelated groups mean
meaning it is wherein an individual in one group cannot also
be a member of the other group
EXPERIMENT 2
1.) Design: Between Subject Design. Two Independent Group
2) Level of Measurement of dependent variable: Ordinal
3.) Purpose: To know whether there is a difference between
variables
Example: I wanted to know is there a significant difference in the
attitude towards President Duterte on both gender? And i will be
using this thru survey form therefore they will rate their attitude on
Duterte from 10 being the highest to 1 being the lowest so the
statistics that I’ll be using here is a Mann Whitney u test
Mann Whitney U Test-
 It is used to compare differences between two independent
groups when the dependent variable is either ordinal or
continuous, but not normally distributed.
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 Mann Whitney U Test is a Non-parametric Test. we have no
other parametric counterpart
EXPERIMENT 3
1.) Design: Between Subject Design. Two Independent Group
2) Level of Measurement of dependent variable: NOMINAL
3.) Purpose: To know whether there is a difference between
variable
Example: i want to know whether there is a difference between
food preferences among gender. Whether males prefer on western
foods or whether girls prefer Asian foods. Our dependent variable
is clearly a nominal scale therefore the statistics that I’ll be using
here is a chi-square statistics
Chi-Square Test For Independence
 Compares two variables in a contingency table. It tests to
see whether distributions of categorical variables differ from
each another.
EXPERIMENT 1
1.) Design: Within Subject Design. Two Matched Group
2) Level of Measurement of dependent variable: INTERVAL/RATIO
3.) Purpose: To know whether there is a difference between our
variables
Example: I want to know if there is a difference towards the time
completion of 5 tangrams if the participants will be expose to time
pressure or not
Why do we consider this as a match group? Because our data is
divided into two groups one data is exposed to time pressure while
the other data is not exposed to time pressure but the difference
here is that the same participants in both data and treatment. Step
that we will use here is a paired t-test or t-test for dependent
samples
T-test
 Used to find out if a difference exists between the before and
after treatment/intervention
 If there is a difference in favor of the posttest or second
treatment then the treatment or intervention is effective
 This is used to test the effectiveness of a certain technique
or method or program that had been developed by
experimenter
EXperiment 2
1.) Design: Within Subject Design. Two Matched groups
2) Dependent variable: Ordinal Scale
3 Purpose: to know whether there is a difference between our
variables
Experiment 3: a psychologist wanted to know if there is a difference
on the pain level of the participant when placed in a cold room and
a hot room. So the test that we will be using here is the Wilcoxon
test which can also be referred as either the rank some test or
design ram test version it is also a non-parametric statistical test
that compares two paired
Wilcoxon Test
 It is also a nonparametric statistical test that compares two
paired groups. The tests essentially calculate the difference
between sets of pairs and analyse these differences to
establish if they are statistically different from one another
1.) How many Groups do we have? And are we using within or
Between Subject Design?
2.) What is the level of measurement of our dependent variable?
3.) What is the purpose of our Test (To know the difference,
relationship or correlation?)
EXPERIMENT 1
1.) Design: Between Subject Design. Multiple Independent Groups
2) Level of Measurement of dependent variable: Interval or Ratio
3.) Purpose: To compare our variables / to know if there is a
difference
Example: A clinical psychologist wants to determine which type of
psychotherapy would best help people to overcome their fear. The
psychologist randomly assigns clients with a fear of heights. To
one of four forms of psychotherapy or a controlled condition each
client in the treatment condition receives 10 sessions with a trained
psychotherapist whereas the clients in the control condition
receives no treatment at all. All clients are taken to the fifth floor of
an office building and asked to stand next to a floor-to-ceiling
window and then give them an anxiety test so our independent
variables here are the forms of psychotherapy which are gestalt,
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psychoanalysis, rational emotive, behaviour modification, and we
also included a controlled group so we have five levels of IV and
DV here. The IV: psychotherapy while DV: level of anxiety
Result of the score:
As you can see here we are not just comparing two
groups we are comparing five groups thus we want to know if the
result of each therapy will all just be similar with each other or
maybe we could see a significant difference in the group. That way
we would know if there is a therapy that will be very effective in
treating anxiety. To find out if there is a significant difference within
the group the statistics that we should apply here is a one-way
anova thus it can't say which therapy is effective. If the result of our
statistic said that there is a significant difference, it just means that
there are treatments that resulted differently from all the groups.
One Way Anova
 The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to
determine whether there are any statistically significant
differences between the means of three or more independent
(unrelated) groups.
 The one-way ANOVA is an omnibus test statistic It cannot
tell you which specific groups were statistically significantly
different from each other
EXPERIMENT 2
1.) Design: Between Subject Design. Multiple Independent Groups
2) Level of Measurement of dependent variable: Ordinal
3.) Purpose: To compare our variables / to know if there is a
difference
Example: a psychologist wanted to know whether exam
performance differs based on test anxiety levels. The dependent
variable here would be exam performance rating and the
independent variable would be the test anxiety level. IV consist of 3
levels student students with low, medium, and high test anxiety. In
this experiment we have three independent groups students with
low, medium, and high test anxiety and then we will see if who
among these groups will perform poorly or will excel enter exam
performance. The statistics should we use is kruskal-wallish test
Kruskal-Wallish Test
 also called the "one-way ANOVA on ranks"
 a rank-based nonparametric test that can be used to
determine if there are statistically significant differences
between two or more groups of an independent variable on a
continuous or ordinal dependent variable, also considered as
the non-parametric alternative to the one-way anova
 We will only use the Kruskal-Wallish Test if our annova is not
normally distributed or there are outliers to our data
 Kruskal Wallis is omnibus test statistic it cannot tell you
which specific groups of your independent variable are
statistically different from each other.
EXPERIMENT 3
1.) Design: Within Subject Design. Multiple Matched Groups
2) Level of Measurement of dependent variable: Interval or Ratio
3.) Purpose: To compare our variables / to know if there is a
difference
Example a psychologist wanted to know whether there is a
difference in anxiety levels amongst moderately anxious
participants after being in a hypnotherapy programme which aims
on reducing anxiety. This program has three time points in which
they will monitor their patient’s anxiety before the treatment, one
month after, and six months after the treatment. In this example
anxiety level is your dependent variable while your independent
variable is time; the before therapy, one month, and six months
after therapy. The statistics should we use is one-way repeated
measures anova
One-Way Repeated Measures Anova
 Also known as within-subjects anova
 We use this to determine whether three or more group
means are different and the participants are the same in
each group.
a) Our participants have been measured over multiple time points
to see if there have been any changes, usually in response to our
intervention;
(b) Our participants have been subjected to more than one
condition/trial and the response to each of these conditions is to be
compared.
EXPERIMENT 4
1.) Design: Within Subject Design. Multiple Matched Groups
2) Level of Measurement of dependent variable: Ordinal
3.) Purpose: To compare our variables / to know if there is a
different
Example a researcher wants to examine Does music has an effect
on the perceived psychological effort required to perform an
exercise session. The dependent variable here is the perceived
effort to perform the exercise and the independent variable here is
the music type which consists of three groups: no music, classical
music, and dance music or upbeat music. To test this the
researcher recruited 12 runners who each ran three times on the
treadmill for 30 minutes for consistency the treadmill speed was the
same for all three runs. In a random order each subject ran
listening to no music at all listening to classical music and then
listening to dance music at the end of each run subjects were
asked to record how hard the running session felt on the scale of 1
to 10 with 1 being easy and 10 being extremely hard. The statistics
should we use is friedman test
Friedman Test
 Non-parametric alternative to the one-way ANOVA with
repeated measures
 Used to test for differences between groups when the
dependent variable being measured is ordinal.
 It can also be used for continuous data that has violated the
assumptions necessary to run the one-way ANOVA with
repeated measures
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