ROLE: is to control the impulses of the id
and instead, it finds way to satisfy the needs
Perspectives/Approa
ches in Psychology
Neurobiological perspective
- The electrochemical activities in the brain
and the neurons pathway and chemical
secretions of the glands biologically affect
the behavior.
Eating- feeding center in the hypothalamus.
THE BEHAVIOURAL PERSPECTIVE
- behavior refers to all the acts of the
organism.
John B. Watson, who proposed
behaviorism external events may be
modified and controlled to give rise to
behavior that may be desirable or
undesirable. (Stimulus) and (Response)
The cognitive perspective
- Involves the internal workings of
the individual like thinking, remembering,
learning, perceiving, and imagining. These
cannot be directly observed.
Ex. Food(stimulus) Like/Dislike Eating /not
eating (Response)
The Psychodynamic perspective
- Sigmund Freud - studied the workings of
the unconscious mind
- according to his theory undesirable
experiences of the individual are forced out
of awareness into the unconscious mind.
“undesirable” manifest through dreams,
slips of speech, mannerisms or can cause
emotional problems.
Structures of Personality
1. ID – the first to develop
- pleasure principle and sexual.
Libido _ sexual instinct
calls for immediate gratification.
2. Ego – After the id the ego develops.
- Based on the reality principle and abides
the social norms.
through socially and culturally acceptable
ways.
3. SUPEr-ego
- The last personality structure to develop.
Commonly known or referred to as the
conscience.
It starts to develop at about age five
this could be a product of parental discipline
or parental rewards and punishments.
Concept of right and wrong.
The phenomenological perspective
(Humanistic perspective)
Developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl
Rogers.
*Goodness in man
*freewill – capacity to make choices for
actions which the individual thinks will help
him realized his inner potentials.
The Sociocultural Perspective
two recent additions
-Combines sociology and culture
The Evolutionary Perspective
Behavior is geared towards achieving goals.
Survive or perish.
What is PSYCHOLOGY?
Psychology is best defined as the study of
mental illness, Human Behavior, Human
thoughts, and behavior.
As a field, psychology is the practice of
diagnosing and treating mental illness and it
is all about social Science
THE ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY
A. Prehistoric Views
Shamans
-prehistoric culture medicine men and
women
Trephination – oldest of all known surgical
procedures, involves drilling a small hole in
a person’s skull usually less than an inch in
diameter.
Egyptians and Greeks – first cultures to
focus on natural and physical explanations
for disorders.
The Great physician Hippocrates was the
first to write about a man suffering from a
phobia of heights what we now call
ACROPHOBIA.
C. Medieval to Early Modern Views
In Europe, during the Middle Ages,
psychological disorders were again
attributed to supernatural causes.
People were possessed by demons, spirits,
and the devil, NOT by PHYSICAL
DISORDERS
Inquisition – judicial inquiry
- a former Roman Catholic tribunal for the
discovery and punishment
1. Accused was prodded with a metal pole
and spears; if he felt no pain, he was
protected by the devil and therefore was a
witch
2. Float test. The person’s hand and feet
were tied and she was thrown into a lake or
river
Punishment – being burned.
D. Modern Views
Mental Illness should be treated as all
medical conditions are with appropriate
diagnosis and therapy.
-Around the 20th century in Austria, Sigmund
Freud developed a form of therapy called
“Psychoanalysis”.
Psychoanalysis- a clinically based
approach to understanding and treating
psychological disorders; assumes that the
unconscious mind is the most powerful
force behind thought and behavior.
WAYS IN EXAMINING BEHAVIOUR
1. behavior as caused by physiological or
chemical changes in the nervous system.
2. it may be a response to a very stressful
experience or
3. cause by social interaction
Questions to ask for
1. what is happening? Provides a
description of the observed behavior
2. why is it happening? Provide theory to
explain behavior
3. when will it happen again? Possible
recurrence
4. how can it be changed? Allows
planning to modify, prevent, possibly end
the recurrence of a certain behavior.
GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
1. DESCRIBE
2. UNDERSTAND
3. PREDICT
4. CONTROL
History of PSYCHOLOGY:
Myers: “Psychology is an old subject but a
young science’
Greek Philosophers:
Plato
Aristotle
Socrates
* THE Greeks and the Age of the
Rationalism
Plato – human potential is determined
largely at birth
emphasized individual differences and that
humans differ in the power they possess.
Individual capacities would determine their
role in the society.
PRESCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY
Rene DESCARTES
- a French philosopher which stated that
innate ideas already exist at birth.
-That man is born with all the necessary
potentials for him to be a complete,
functional being.
John Locke
- an English philosopher which stated that
ideas are acquired through sensory
experiences and interactions with the
environment.
The Birth of the
NATURE vs. NURTURE CONTROVERSY
EMPIRICAL APPROACH
a philosophical approach that argues for
study through observation.
In Germany: Wilhelm Wundt started
studying sensations, mental images and
affective states.
He established the first psychological
laboratory.
In AMERICA: Stanley Hall
Structuralism Becomes Psychology’s First
School of Thought
Edward B. Titchener, one of Wundt’s most
famous students founded this school of
thought.
Structuralism – human consciousness could
be broken down into much smaller parts.
Using a process known as introspection.
Functionalism of William James
Psychology flourished in America during the
mid-to-late 1800’s.
William James emerged as one of the
major American psychologists. The “Father
of American Psychology”
The focus of functionalism was on how
behavior actually works to help people live
in their environment.
Gestalt Psychology
- a school of thought that looks at the
human mind and behavior as a whole.
The German word Gestalt literally means
“figure” and is used to refer to any general
pattern which manifests characteristics
different that are inherent in its parts.
“the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts.”
Sigmund Freud, a neurologist from Austria
John B. Watson who introduced
behaviorism.
In Philippines:
Psychology was taught as early as the 17th
century at the University of San Carlos in
Cebu and UST in Manila
Sikolohiyang Pilipino
Sinforoso Padilla
- the first to major in Psychology from the
undergrad to the doctorate level.
Angel de blas – established the
Experimental Psychology laboratory in UST
Estefania Aldaba –Lim- first Filipino to
receive a Ph.D in Clinical Psychology from
the University of Michigan
Alfredo Lagmay
chairman of UPDP for 22 ears
Jaime Bulatao, S.J. – Established the dept
of Psychology in Ateneo de Manila.
Erik Erikson
- A Freudian ego-psychologist
- -society and culture oriented than
most Freudians
- Personality traits and feelings can be
learned by the things, challenges and
support we receive in growing up.
Developmental Task that is psychosocial in
nature.
- Virtue or Psychosocial strength
- - two negative effects
- 1. maladaptation
- Ex. Trusts too much
- 2. malignancies
- Ex. low self-concept, mistrust
1.Infancy: birth to eight months
Ego development Outcome: TRUST vs.
MISTRUST
Strength: Drive & Hope
Major emphasis is the relationship with the
mother.
Mistrust of the world, feeling of
worthlessness.
2. Early Childhood
Ego Development Outcome: AUTONOMY
vs. SHAME & DOUBT
Strength: Self-control, Courage and will
“Toddler” means you’re too old to be a baby
and too young to be a little boy.
They develop interests and attitude that will
lay the foundation of later creativity.
Guardian: positive spirit
Major skills of the guardian is the right use
“NO”
3. Play Age: 3 to 5 years
Ego development Outcome: INITIATIVE vs.
GUILT
Strength: Purpose
Desire to copy the adults.
Play is serious business.
Play gives them information about their
environment.
4. School Age: 6 to 12 years old
Ego Development Outcome: INDUSTRY vs.
INFERIORITY
Strength: method & Competence
Much more capable of learning, acquiring,
accomplishing new skills.
Achievers, underachievers, or
overachievers.
Psychologists call this stage as “gang age”
Producer
Conformist
5. Adolescence: 12 to 18 years
Ego development Outcome: IDENTITY vs.
ROLE CONFUSION
Strength: Fidelity
Task is to discover who we are separate
from our family.
Ego- identity –knowing who you are and
how you fit in the rest of the society.
To outgrow Role Confusion
1. Role model
2. Open lines of communication
3. Mainstream adult culture.
6. Young Adulthood:
Ego development Outcome: INTIMACY vs.
SOLIDARITY
Strength: Affiliation & Love
“Losing oneself.”
“Fear of commitment”
“Couple-hood” – two egos wanting to create
something larger than themselves.
7. Middle Adulthood
Ego development Outcome:
GENERATIVITY vs. STAGNATION
Generativity - Extension of love into the
future.
The significant task is to perpetuate culture
and transmit values of the culture through
the family and working to establish a stable
environment.
Strength: Care of others and producing
something for the betterment of society.
Family, work or career, community.
“What am I doing all this work?”
8. Late Adulthood
Ego Development Outcome: INTEGRITY
vs. DESPAIR (defeatism & hopelessness)
Strength: Wisdom
Wonder: “was the trip worth it?
Task to develop Ego- Integrity which means
coming to terms with your life and to the end
of life.
Characteristics
1. Detachment from society
2. Feel their input is no longer asked
for
3. Biological uselessness
4. Illness of old age
5. Pre-occupied with regrets.
Cognitive Stage of Jean Piaget
1. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
-Infants ability to sense the world in terms of
basic senses (sensory) & actions (Motor)
ASSIMILATION – taking in new information
– modification of one’s cognitive structures
based on experience.
2. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
ANIMISM – attributing life in inanimate
things
ARTIFICIALISM – belief that everything is a
product of human creation
EGOCENTRISM
3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
EX. Five apples plus two apples
4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKING
EX. Playing billiards
Personal fable – exaggerated belief in one’s
own uniqueness & immortality, especially
among adolescents.
Kohlbergs Moral dev’t stages
1. PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL
A. HETERONOMOUS – obedience for its
own sake
B. PURPOSE AND EXCHANGE
2. CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
A. MUTUAL INTERPERSONAL
EXPECTATIONS, INTERPERSONAL
CONFORMITY
=living up to what is expected by people
close to you.
B. SOCIAL SYSTEM & CONSCIENCE
=fulfilling the actual duties.
3. POST CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
A. SOCIAL CONTRACT ORIENTATION
=UTILITY AND INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS.
ERIK ERICKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
ERIK HOMBURGER ERICKSON
- believes that other characteristics
such as feeling either competent or inferior,
appear to be learned, based n the
challenges and support we receive in
growing up.
-he was influenced by Freud.
-a Freudian ego-psychologist.
-much more society and
culture-oriented than most Freudians.
1. Infancy : Birth to 18 mos.
EGO DEVELOPMENT OUTCOME: Trust
vs. Mistrust
BASIC STRENGTH: Drive and Hope
Erikson also referred to infancy as the oral
sensory stage, where the major emphasis i
on the mother’s positive and loving care for
the child, with a big emphasis on visual
contact and touch. If we pass successfully
through this period of life, we will learn to
trust that life is basically okay and have
basic confidence in the future.
. If we fail to experience trust and are
constantly frustrated because our needs are
not met, we may end up with a deep-seated
feeling of worthlessness and a mistrust of
the world in general.
2. Early Childhood: 18 Months to 3 Years
EGO DEVELOPMENT OUTCOME:
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
BASIC STRENGTH: Self- control, Courage
and Will
During this stage we learn to master skills
for ourselves. Not only do we learn to walk,
talk and feed ourselves, we are learning
finer motor development as well as the
much appreciated toilet training
Here we have the opportunity to build
self-esteem and autonomy as we gain
more control over our bodies and acquire
new skills, learning right from wrong.
It is also during this stage, however, that we
can be very vulnerable. If we're shamed in
the process of toilet training or in learning
other important skills, we may feel great
shame and doubt of our capabilities and
suffer low self-esteem as a result.
The most significant relationships are with
parents.
3. Play Age: 3 to 5 Years
EGO DEVELOPMENT OUTCOME:
Initiative vs. Guilt
Basic Strength: Purpose
During this period we experience a desire to
copy the adults around us and take
initiative in creating play situations. We
make up stories with Barbie's and Ken's, toy
phones and miniature cars, playing out roles
in a trial universe,
Initiative means a positive response to the
world's challenges, taking on
responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling
purposeful. Parents can encourage initiative
by encouraging children to try out their
ideas. We should accept and encourage
fantasy and curiosity and imagination. This
is a time for play, not for formal
education. The child is now capable, as
never before, of imagining a future situation,
one that isn't a reality right now. Initiative is
the attempt to make that non-reality a
reality.
The most significant relationship is with
the basic family.
4. School Age: 6 to 12 Years
EGO DEVELOPMENT OUTCOME: Industry
vs. Inferiority
Basic Strengths: Method and Competence
During this stage, often called the Latency,
we are capable of learning, creating and
accomplishing numerous new skills and
knowledge, thus developing a sense of
industry. This is also a very social stage of
development and if we experience
unresolved feelings of inadequacy and
inferiority among our peers, we can have
serious problems in terms of competence
and self-esteem.
As the world expands a bit, our most
significant relationship is with the school
and neighborhood. Parents are no longer
the complete authorities they once were,
although they are still important.
A happier thing is to develop the right
balance of industry and inferiority - that is,
mostly industry with just a touch of inferiority
to keep us sensibly humble. Then we have
the virtue called competency.
5. Adolescence: 12 to 18 Years
EGO DEVELOPMENT OUTCOME:
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Basic Strengths: Devotion and Fidelity
Up to this stage, according to Erikson,
development mostly depends upon what is
done to us. From here on out, development
depends primarily upon what we do. And
while adolescence is a stage at which we
are neither a child nor an adult, life is
definitely getting more complex as we
attempt to find our own identity, struggle
with social interactions, and grapple with
moral issues.
Most significant relationships are with peer
groups.
6. Young adulthood: 18 to 35
EGO DEVELOPMENT OUTCOME:
Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation
Basic Strengths: Affiliation and Love
In the initial stage of being an adult we seek
one or more companions and love. As we
try to find mutually satisfying relationships,
primarily through marriage and friends, we
generally also begin to start a family, though
this age has been pushed back for many
couples who today don't start their families
until their late thirties. If negotiating this
stage is successful, we can experience
intimacy on a deep level.
If we're not successful, isolation and
distance from others may occur. And when
we don't find it easy to create satisfying
relationships, our world can begin to shrink
as, in defense, we can feel superior to
others.
Our significant relationships are with marital
partners and friends
7. Middle Adulthood: 35 to 55 or 65
EGO DEVELOPMENT OUTCOME:
Generativity vs. Self absorption or
Stagnation
Basic Strengths: Production and Care
Significant relationships are within the
workplace, the community and the family
8. Late Adulthood: 55 or 65 to Death
EGO DEVELOPMENT OUTCOME:
Integrity vs. Despair
Basic Strengths: Wisdom
Erikson felt that much of life is preparing for
the middle adulthood stage and the last
stage is recovering from it. Perhaps that is
because as older adults we can often look
back on our lives with happiness and are
content, feeling fulfilled with a deep sense
that life has meaning and we've made a
contribution to life, a feeling Erikson calls
integrity.
The task is to develop ego integrity with a
minimal amount of despair. This stage,
especially from the perspective of youth,
seems like the most difficult of all. First
comes a detachment from society, from a
sense of usefulness, for most people in our
culture. Some retire from jobs they've held
for years; others find their duties as parents
coming to a close; most find that their input
is no longer asked for or required.
Nervous System
Major Message Network
1. Nervous System
2. Endocrine system
The NERVOUS SYSTEM is a very
important system in examining and
understanding human behaviour. It plays a
vital role in the execution of our responses
NEURONS – the basic unit of the nervous
system
Dendrites – short branches projecting from
the cell body (dendron-tree)
1. SENSORY or Afferent Neuron – they
submit the information from the receptors to
the brain
2. Efferent or MOTOR neurons – sends
the signal away from the brain to the
effectors which responds to produce
changes in either internal or external
environment
3 ROD > photoreceptors used for
colorless vision in the dim light.
2.HEARING
hair cells > receptors for hearing
3. TASTE
Taste buds > cluster of receptors
located on the tongue that determine
different tastes, such as sweet and sour.
Taste cells > individual taste receptors
located on taste buds.
4.SMELL
Olfactory cells > receptor cells that are
responsible for smell
Trigeminal sense > chemoreceptor
system in the nose that is responsible to
certain food flavors.
ANOSMIA – inability to detect odors might
be caused by brain tumors.
5. SKIN
Receptive surface
1. Epidermis – outer layer
2. Dermis – middle layer
3. Subcutaneous layer – inner layer
NERVOUS SYSTEM – part of the
body that carries messages from one
location to another.
Three basic functions are performed by
nervous systems:
1.) Receive sensory input from internal and
external environments
2. ) Integrate the input
3.) Respond to stimuli
1. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
– kinds of reflexes like coughing,
> connecting the brain & SPINAL CORD
to other parts of the body
2. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM -
> consists of the brain & the SPINAL
CORD
The PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Somatic – involves the voluntary
muscles like when you place a coin
in a vendo machine.
2. Autonomic – involves the involuntary
muscles like breathing, blood
vessels.
TWO DIVISIONS:
1. Sympathetic – alarm system. When it is
stimulated the neurons produces increase
blood flow and also adrenalin for more
energy.
2. Parasympathetic – the one responsible
for reserving the energy.
The Central Nervous System is the neural
tissues that lies inside the protective
housing provided by the skull and vertebral
column.
SPINAL CORD – a tube-like structure that
begins at the base of the brain and
descends to the lower back region
BRAIN – consists of over 180 billion cells
50 billions for thought processing
Three Main Structures of the BRAIN
1. Hindbrain:
● Oldest brain region
● The region directly connected to
the spinal cord
● Regulates breathing, heart rate,
arousal and other basic functions
for survival
Three Main parts of the Hindbrain: the
medulla, the pons and the cerebellum
a. Medulla – is involved in various
swallowing, sneezing and vomiting.
b. b. Pons –”bridge” between lower and
higher brain region
c. c. Cerebellum – or “little brain”. It is
responsible for body movement,
balance, coordination, and fine
motor skills
2. Midbrain: important role in
coordinating whole body movements in
response to visual stimuli.
a) RETICULAR FORMATION- it is like a
listening post that alerts the brain from
incoming signals.
Important for waking up and falling
asleep.
The MIDBRAIN initiates voluntary
movement of the body.
The Medulla, the Pons and the Midbrain
are often referred to as the Brain Stem.
3, Forebrain: The largest part of the
human brain. It contains the
CEREBRUM
It controls cognitive, sensory and motor
function and regulate temperature,
reproductive functions, eating, sleeping
and display of emotions.
3. Forebrain:
a) Thalamus > considered “the great
relay station of the brain”, for it is
through here that all AUDITORY,
VISUAL, TASTE & TOUCH sensory
signals must pass.
b) HYPOTHALAMUS >
-“hypho” means BELOW..
- emotions. Eating drinking
and sexual behaviour and homeostasis.
Homeostasis – refers to the normal body
temperature, heart rate and blood
pressure.
Also, it interacts with the Pituitary glands
to affect how we feel.
It has regulatory areas for thirst, hunger,
body temperature, water balance, and
blood pressure, and links the Nervous
System to the Endocrine System
c) AMYGDALA – “emotion central”.
- a small. Almond-shaped structure
located directly infront of the
hippocampus; important for processing
emotional information especially that
related to fear.
In the 1940’s , Researchers discovered
the role of the hypothalamus in eating.
Lesioning could cause obesity or
undereating (Kupfermann, Kandel, &
Iversen, 2000).
d) HIPPOCAMPUS – is in the limbic
system.
- Plays a vital role in both learning and
memory.
E) Cerebral Cortex – cortex means
“bark”
it distinguishes us from lower organisms.
The ability to reason and think
analytically is a talent unique to human.
Lobes of the BRAIN (bilateral)
1. Frontal Lobe - function: attention,
holding things in mind while solving
problems, planning, abstract thinking,
control of impulses, creativity and social
awareness..
Last part of the brain to finish developing
2. Parietal Lobe: plays important role in
the sensation and perception of touch.
3. Temporal Lobes: right behind the
ears. House the “auditory cortex”.
Where sound information arrives from
thalamus for processing.
4. Occipital Lobe: the optic nerve
travels from the eye to the thalamus and
then to the occipital lobe – specifically
the Primary Visual Cortex--
The ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
>Is composed of glands that secrete
chemical products into the bloodstreams
therefore influencing the body to
produce a reaction.
Hormones – secreted products, circulate
with the blood to influence parts of the
body that are distantly located from the
site of endocrine glands.
Metabolism - Is the process by which
the body converts nutritional substances
into energy.
The sex glands (ovaries and testes)
release sex hormones that lead to
development of sex characteristics , sex
drive and other aspects of sexual
maturation.
.
Cathecholamines, a class of chemicals
released by the adrenal gland that
functions as hormones and as
neurotransmitters to control ANS
activation.
Steps of the Scientific Method
1. select a researchable problem
2. formulate a hypothesis - a tentative
proposition that can be tested
3. test the hypothesis – using statistical
tools
Reliability - the extent to which a
measuring instrument yields consistent
results, both over time and across
observers.
Sensory System
neural network for processing
information in a single modality;
examples include systems that report on
pain, hearing, smelling and touching.
a. Sensory selection – momentary
significance to the organism
b.Transducer– it changes the nature of
the stimulus into a form that can be
understood by the system.
Transduction
It happens when
-cells in the retina change into light
waves to neural energy,
- when hair cells in the inner ear
change sound waves to neural energy,
- when chemicals in the air bind to
receptors in the nose,
-when food chemicals stimulate
taste buds on the tongue and,
- when pressure and temperature
stimulate nerve cells in the skin.
C. Sensory analysis.
d. Sensory encoding – coding by
changing the stimulus to electrical
impulses which are understood and
received by the brain (Transduction)
e. Brain- interprets these electrical
impulses, into what is meaningful to the
organism.
Sensory adaptation - decline in
receptor activity elicited by an
Examples.: getting used to you perfume
you can now easily fall to sleep even if
the environment is noisy
Perception – involves the extraction
and interpretation of sensory
information; the basis for interpreting our
environment.
Principles of Perception
What is the smallest object you can see
from a distance? What is the softest
sound that you can hear? = Absolute
threshold
Absolute threshold - The lowest
intensity level of a stimulus a person
can detect half of the time.
Signal Detection Theory
The viewpoint that both stimulus
intensity and decision-making processes
are involved in the detection of a
stimulus.
FOUR POSSIBLE OUTCOMES:
1. Hit
2. Miss
3. False alarm
4. Correct rejection
Difference Threshold
The smallest amount of change between
two stimuli that a person can detect half
of the time.
The light enters the eye at the CORNEA
Cornea, a clear hard covering that
protects the lens.
a. Rods – dim light; night time
b. CONES – day time
HEARING
The Sound Stimulus
-Understand SOUND
- If a tree falls in the forest and no one is
there to hear it, would there be a
sound?”
a. Pinna – the visible projecting portion
of the ear.
B. Auditory canal – it is a short
passageway of the sound.
MIDDLE EAR
a. Eardrum – also known as the
tympanic membrane, it vibrates as it
receives the sound.
B. Auditory ossicles – connects the ear
drum to the internal ear.
(malleus, incus and stapes)
-to amplify the sound
a.Malleus – or hammer : tiny bone,
located next to the eardrum.
B.INCUS or ANVIL – vibrates the
response to the vibration of the hammer
c.
c. Oval WINDOW –
this part separates the middle ear from
the inner ear and contains the fluids that
makes waves as results of the vibration.
INNER EAR
A. COCHLEA – snail-like structure in the
inner ear than contains the organ of
corti.
B. Organ of corti – contains the hair cells
that bends because of waves caused by
the vibration
c. Auditory nerve - Contains nerve that
connects to the brain.
AUDITORY PROBLEMS
HAIR CELLS OF 30, 000.
60 YEARSL OLD WE HAVE LOST 40%.
A. CONDUCTION DEAFNESS – this
type results because of some structural
problems in the auditory mechanism (
failure for sound vibration to reach the
hair cells in the cochlea.
USE HEARING AIDS.
B. NERVE DEAFNESS –
THIS may be inborn or caused by some
disease that has affected the hair cells
and the auditory nerve itself. Hearing
aids cannot help. The means through
which the nerve impulses are
transmitted to the brain is damaged.
The Chemical Senses: Smell and
Taste
Responds to contact with the molecules
from objects we encounter in the world.
Considered very important
survival-related senses
Receptors here are regularly replaced
due to the constant exposure to dirt and
bacteria which can impair their
functions.
THE NOSE AND TONGUE:CHEMICAL
SENSES
CHEMICAL SENSES
- they are activated by the chemical
properties of the substances or particles
that they are supposed to respond to.
NOSE –
due to the direct connection of the
olfactory nerves to the brain, it is very
easy to recall.
OLFACTORY ADAPTATION – LOSING
YOUR SENSITIVITY DUE TO
UNCHANGING STIMULUS IN THE
SENSE OF SMELL.
Parts of the nose
from the top to the middle of the nose.
OLFACTORY BULBS-Passageway to
the brain, sends messages to the brain
CILIA – HAIR-LIKE TISSUES
filter or sift dust and other particles in
Behavior of animals PACINIAN CORPUSCLES – receptors
Animals are so dependent on for deep pressure and vibration
their OLFACTORY SENSES. FREE NERVE ENDING – sensitive to
pain, temperature changes and
TONGUE – made up of many groups of
itchiness.
muscles.
Four important data:
PARTS OF THE TONGUE
1. what part of the body is experiencing
1. PAPILLAE – situated on the upper
the sensation
side of the tongue. Where the taste buds
2. what kind of sensation is felt
are.
(quality)
2. TONSILS – filter germs. Two types of
3. how intense is the sensation
tonsils:
(quantity)
LINGUAL and PALATINE
4. how long is the sensation felt
3. ADENOIDS – help fight infection.
4. FRENULUM LINGUAE – secure the
tongue in place. It is underside of the
tongue that connects the tongue to the
bottom part of the jaw.
5. SULCUS TERMINALIS – median of
the tongue.
6. MICROVILLUS – fine hair like
projection
(duration)
SKIN SENSE
( touch, pressure, pain , temperature) PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTION
Gestalt
THE SKIN SENSE
SKIN – largest organ of the body. The Gestalt principle of proximity
TWO TYPES OF SKIN: suggests that you see (a) one block of
1. HAIRY SKIN dots on the left side and (b) three
2. HAIRLESS SKIN columns on the right side.
Parts of the skin:
1. epidermis – outer layer
made up of cells called
KERATINOCYTES (later on turns to
dead cells.)
MELANOCYTES produce dark pigment \When looking at this array of dots, we
called MELANIN. likely perceive alternating rows of colors.
We are grouping these dots according to
2. DERMIS - involves in the regulation of the principle of similarity.
the body temperature contains sense
organs for touch, pressure, pain and
temperature
MEISSNERS CORPUSCLE – receptors
effective in detecting light touch and
soft.

Good continuation would suggest that
we are more likely to perceive this as
two overlapping lines, rather than four
lines meeting in the center.
Closure suggests that we will perceive
a complete circle and rectangle rather
than a series of segments.
Smell Olfaction
Olfactory Sensory neurons- the sensory
receptors for smell that reside high up
inside the nose which contains the
CILIA (similar to the hair cells in the
inner ear)
The cilia converts chemical information
in odor molecules into neural impulses
(transduction occurs)
The olfactory message travels to the
olfactory bulb in the forebrain and sends
information though the thalamus
Some fibers from the olfactory bulb go
directly to the amygdala which sends
smell information into the hypothalamus
and is connected with the hippocampus.
Personality includes an individuals
characteristics, ways of thinking and
behaving in a variety of situations
Personologist – psychologist who study
personality
Personality – organization of an
individual’s characteristics, attitudes
and habits.
- it includes the individuals unique
ways of thinking, behaving, or
otherwise experiencing the
environment
TRAITS VS. SITUATION
FIVE PERSONALITY FACTORS
1. EXTRAVERSION – interest is
directed to other person rather than to
oneself.
2. AGREEABLENESS - willingness to
consent, helpfulness
3. CONSCIENTIOUS – showing care
and precision doing what one thinks is
right
4. EMOTIONAL STABILITY – being
relatively free of anxieties and other
mood variations
5. INTELLECT – ability to reason,
understand and perceive relationships
among variables
THEORY – is an organized and
systematic set of principles that describe
or explains a phenomenon.
FREUD PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY
TWO SOURCES OF INSTINCTUAL
ENERGY
1. LIFE INSTINCT – (eros) including sexual
impulses
-accounts for feelings and behavior related
to self-preservation
2. DEATH INSTINCT – (THANATOS) impels
the person toward aggression and
destruction

The Psychoanalytic Approach

Sigmund Freud
His description of human personality
reflects his own personality and life
experiences.
The Freudian theory of Personality
• The conscious contains the thoughts
you are currently aware of.
• The preconscious or the large body
of retrievable information.
• The Unconscious or the material in
which we have no immediate
access.