1st SEMESTER

PSYCHOLOGY
TEAM PSYCHOCRASH

Contact us: +91 8848 77 1944

Instagram : team_psychocrash
Courses Offered:
1) Exam Orietned Crash course in Psychology (ECP)

ECP is an exam oriented crash course that provide semster wise classes
prior to university examinations. The classes cover complete syllabus of a
semester in core (psychology) and coplementary papers (physiology &
statistics) within 7-10 days per subject and provides you with necessary
study materials.

2) Systematic Approach Towards Psychology Essentials (SAPE)

Systematic Approach Towards Psychology Essentials (SAPE) is an 5

months online Entrance Coaching Program for Psychology Master's
initiated by Team Psychocrash. The classes are scheduled for 3 days a
week (Monday, Wednesday, Friday) with a doubt clearing session at the
end of the class and mock tess t on every weekends

3) Lets Talk Psychology (LTP)

Let's Talk Psychology is a free webinar series initiated by Team

Psychocrash to enhance knowledge in diverse fields of psychology among
students and to provide a free space for students to meet, interact and
clarify their doubts regarding the field.

4) Stepwise approach to Research Methodolgy (SRM)

Stepwise Approach to Research Methodology is a theoretically and

practically oriented guidance program to have a better understanding
about psychological research. This program includes complete guidance
for UG & PG project/dissertation, SPSS assistance, research paper
presentation & publication etc.
 MODULE 1:

INTRODUCTION

PSYCHOLOGY: A WORKING DEFINITION

• 16th century- Term psychology - Derived from Greek words Psyche

(soul) and logos (study) - psyche was used to refer to the soul,
spirit, or mind, as distinguished from the body.
• Rudolf Goeckel: First used the term psychology (1590)
• "Psychology is the study of behaviour and mental
process”
• "The science of mental life, both of its phenomena and
their conditions”- William James

Goals of Psychology
1. Observation
2. Description
3. Understanding
4. Explanation
5. Prediction
6. Control of human behavior and mental process.

ORIGIN OF PSYCHOLOGY

Philosophical perspectives

• Epistemology- branch of philosophy that is concerned with nature,

origin and limitation of knowledge.

• Rationalism- philosophical perspective maintaining the view that

mind is actively involved in the attainment of knowledge.

• Early rationalists- Plato, Aristotle

• Nativism- philosophical perspective that maintained the view that

knowledge is inherited in nature.

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• Early nativists- Plato, Rene Descarte, Thomas Hobbes, Immanual Kant

• Empiricism- philosophical perspective that held the view that

knowledge is a result of sensory experience and was not inherited in
nature.

• Early empiricists- Aristotle, John Locke [tabula rasa], George Berkeley,

David Hume

Greek Philosophical Origin

1. Hippocrates (460- 377 BC)

 Greek physician
 Father of Modern Medicine
 Stressed upon the significance of brain in psychological process.
 Put forward the humoral theory – Blood, Phlegm, Yellow bile and
Black bile. Disease is caused by imbalance of humor in the body,
not by super powers. The corresponding four humors for
personality are:

a. Melancholic

b. Choleric

c. Phlegmatic

d. Sanguine

2. Socrates (469- 399 BC)

According to Socrates soul was not any faculty, nor was it any special
kind of substance, but rather the capacity for intelligence and character.

3. Plato (427- 347 BC)

 Mind is separate from body and continuous to exist even after

death.
 Ideas/ knowledge are innate.

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  According to Plato, soul has three components

i. Reason-awareness

ii. spirit -drive

iii. appetite –desire

 Combined Socratic methods and Pythagorean mysticism.

 Theory of forms – “Objects in material world are inferior
representation of objects in world of pure forms” i.e., the physical
world is not really the 'real' world; instead, ultimate reality exists
beyond our physical world.
 Book: The Replubic

4. Aristotle (384- 322 BC)

 Student of Plato; Teacher of Alexander the great

 Founded Lyceum – 1st university
 First examined topics like memory, sensation, sleep, dream,
geriatrics etc.
 Rationalist empiricist i.e., mind analyses information from senses
to produce knowledge.
 Explained psychological event in terms of biology – First
physiological psychology.
 Soul is not different from body.
 Knowledge is acquired through learning and experiences – First
theory of learning, Succession of ideas.
 Postulated law of associationism – basis for modern learning
theory.

5. Alcameon (500 BC)

 Father of Greek medicine

 He believed that sensation and thoughts occur in the brain.

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6. Rene Descartes (1596-1650 AD)

• Father of modern philosophy

• French philosopher

• Conarium –the concept that the point of contact between mind and
body is located in pineal gland of the brain.

• Dualism – It is the mind, body interaction. They are separate entities

which interact through pineal gland.

• Monism – it is the opposite of dualism. Mind and body should coexist.

Two types:

i. Phenomenological – only mind exist, body is perception

ii. Only body exist- mind is inside body

• Book- On Man

7. John Locke (1632-1704 AD)

• Dualist; Empiricist

• Opposed innate ideas – knowledge comes from experiences.

• Ideas are simple mental images, produced by sensation or reaction.

• Mind operates to arrange images, it does not create or destroy them.

• Concept of Tabula Rasa- the idea that at birth the mind is like a “blank
tablet” and that all knowledge is subsequently derived from sensory
experience. Locke’s actual phrase was “white paper.”

• Book- "An essay concerning human understanding”

Biological Origin

1. Charles Darwin
• Darwin was the grandfather of evolutionary psychology, which
attempts to determine which psychological traits, such as

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 personality and perception of attractiveness, are evolved
adaptations due to natural selection.
• He was also one of the pioneers for child development research
and psychology.
• Charles Darwin developed the theories of natural and sexual
selection.
• Natural selection is the mechanism by which the variants within
a species that are most fit to survive in their environment triumph
in the reproductive game against other species with less fit
variants.
• Sexual selection is a subset of natural selection. It is the
mechanism by which.0% the physical and psychological variants
that are most fit, in terms of sexual fitness and attractiveness,
triumph in the reproductive game against other species with less
sexually desirable.

2. Francis Galton
 first cousin of Charles Darwin
 His influential study Hereditary Genius (1869) was the first
systematic attempt to investigate the effect of heredity on
intellectual abilities
 Galton went on to suggest the use of twin studies to disentangle
nature from nurture, by comparing identical twins to fraternal
twins.

Modern Scientific Psychology

1. Structuralism:

 Founder - Wilhelm Wundt

 Wundt focused on the structure of the mind and identification of
the basic elements of consciousness and investigate how these
elements are related (sensations, feelings, and images) using
trained introspection (the careful, systematic self-observation of
one’s own conscious experience) and coined the term voluntarism (
Wundt’s term of structuralism)

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  Wundt viewed mental experience as an hierarchy, the mind
construct an overall perception out of building blocks made up of
separate sensation and emotional responses.
 Mind could be studied by breaking them into elements i.e., mind
can be broken down into smaller elements of mental experience –
Structuralism.
 Marked the beginning of psychology as a science.
 Margaret Floy Washburn was Titchener’s first graduate student
and the first woman to complete her Ph.D. in psychology (BOOK:
Animal Mind,1908).
 1921- Became the second woman to serve as president of the APA.

2. Functionalism:

 Developed by William James.

 Functionalism was based on the belief that psychology should
investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than
its structure.
 Concentrates on what mind does; the function of mental activity.
 Became prominent in 1900's.
 Focused upon the way human adapt to their environment: what
roles behaviour played in allowing people to better adapt to their
environment (Stream of consciousness) and was thus influenced
by Darwins theory of natural selection (origin of species - 1859).
 1890:“Principles of Psychology”- James’s landmark book.
 James argued that consciousness consists of a continuous flow of
thoughts. In analyzing consciousness into its “elements,” the
structuralists were looking at static points in that flow. James
wanted to understand the flow itself, which he called the “stream of
consciousness” i.e., described the flow of ideas people experience
when they are awake.
 Whereas structuralists naturally gravitated to the laboratory,
functionalists were more interested in how people adapt their
behavior to the demands of the real world around them.

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3. Behaviorism

 Second force in psychology.

 Developed by John. B. Watson. (little albert experiment-1912);
redefined psychology as the science of behavior.
 A new school of thought that gradually became dominant within
psychology between 1913 and the late 1920s.
 Behaviourism is a theoretical orientation based on the premise that
scientific psychology should study only observable behavior.
 Rejected the early emphasis on the inner working of mind.
 Believed that it is unscientific to study consciousness.
 Claimed that psychology was not concerned with the mind or with
human consciousness
 Study should be limited to observable, measurable events –
behavior.
 Humans could be studied objectively, like rats and apes.
 Behavior refers to any overt (observable) response or activity by an
organism.
 Because the behaviorists investigated stimulus-response
relationships, the behavioral approach is often referred to as
stimulus-response (S-R) psychology.
 Defined psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior.
 Followers of behaviorism:

⮚ Ivan Pavlov: Classical conditioning (1905)

⮚ B. F. Skinner: Operant conditioning (1950s)

⮚ Albert Bandura: Observational learning

⮚ Thorndike: Trial and error learning

4. Psychodynamic Perspective:

 Founded by Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), an Austrian physician in

1900s– Viennese neurologist by profession.
 1900 – Book: The Interpretation of Dreams

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  Give importance to the inner unconscious experiences (thoughts,
memories and desires) and the forces that led that behavior.
 Deterministic view
 First person to identify therapy in psychology.
 He proposed that behavior is greatly influenced by how people
cope with their sexual urges.
 Book: Studies in Hysteria by Sigmund Freud and Josef Breuer –
They diagnosed hysteria by hypnosis. Freud contended that at the
root of hysterical symptoms were repressed memories of
distressing occurences, almost always having direct or indirect
sexual associations.
 Freud’s ‘Studies in Hysteria’ attempts to explain personality,
motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious
determinants of behavior.
 1909- G. Stanley Hall invited Freud to give a series of lectures at
Clark University in Massachusetts.
 By 1920 psychoanalytic theory was widely known around the
world.
 Psychoanalysis: It is a set of theories and therapeutic techniques
used to study the unconscious mind, which together form a
method of treatment for mental disorders.

Instinct theory

⮚ Freud believed that we always experience a certain amount of

instinctual tension and that we must continually act to reduce it.

⮚ Types of instincts: Life instincts and Death instincts.

Levels of consciousness

1) The conscious: It includes all the sensations and experiences of

which we are aware at any given moment.

2) The preconscious: Storehouse of memories, perceptions, and

thoughts of which we are not consciously aware at the moment but that
we can easily brought into consciousness.

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3) The unconscious: Contains memories, thoughts and motives which
we cannot easily call up. Freud concluded that psychological
disturbances are largely caused by personal conflicts existing at an
unconscious level.

Structural theory/ Theory of personality

Structural theory divides the personality/ psyche into 3 parts:

1) Id

 Reservoir for instincts and psychic energy (libido).

 Pleasure principle

2) Ego

 Reality principl
 Organized, realistic part that govern, control and mediates
between the desires of id and super-ego.

3) Super-ego

 Morality principle
 Ideal part of personality – Seeks perfection than pleasure.

Anxiety

 State of tension that makes individual to do something – Occurs

due to conflict between id and ego.
 3 types of anxiety: Reality anxiety, Neurotic anxiety and Moral
anxiety.

Defense Mechanisms

⮚ Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that are

unconsciously use to protect a person/ ego from anxiety from
unacceptable thoughts or feelings.

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⮚ We use defese mechanisms to protect ourselves from feelings of
anxiety or guilt, which arise because we feel threatened, or because our
id or super-ego becomes too demanding.

Theory of psycho-sexual development

● Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development is based on the

idea that parents play a crucial role in managing their children's sexual
and aggressive drives during the first few years of life to foster their
proper development.

● Freud’s idea was that from birth on, we have an innate tendency to
seek pleasure, especially through physical stimulation and particularly
through stimulation of parts of the body that are sensitive to touch: the
mouth, anus and genitals.

● If the child’s needs at one of the psychosexual stages were either

unsatisfied or over-satisfied, fixation would take place i.e., the child
would show continued attachment to an old age even after moving to a
new one.

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Techniques of psychoanalysis

1. Free association

● A technique in which the patient says whatever comes to mind. In

other words, it is a kind of daydreaming out loud.

2. Dream analysis

● A technique involving the interpretation of dreams to uncover

unconscious conflicts – “Royal road to the unconscious mind”.

● Dreams have a manifest content (the actual events in the dream) and a
latent content (the symbolic meaning of the dream events).

3. Freudian slips/ Slip of tongue

● It is the errors in speech that actually reflect unconscious impulses.

4. Transference

● Redirection of a patient’s feeling for a significant person to the

therapist i.e., patient may feel attraction/ affection towards therapist.

5. Counter-transference

● Redirection of therapist’s feeling towards the client.i.e., therapist

having attraction/ affection towards the client.

5. Humanistic Perspective

 Humanism (at the beginning of 1950s) is a theoretical orientation

that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their
freedom and their potential for personal growth.
 Third force of psychology.
 FriderichNiethammer coined the term.

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  Suggest that people is in control of their life- held the concept of
free will.
 Rejected the behaviorist’s view and psychodynamic view.
 Stresses the idea that people by nature have a tendency to move
towards higher level of maturity and maximum potential.
 Humanists take an optimistic view of human nature.
 Emphasizes on actualization of self.
 Person-centered.
 To fully understand people’s behavior, psychologists must take into
account the fundamental human drive toward personal growth.
They asserted that people have a basic need to continue to evolve
as human beings and to fulfill their potentials.

6. Gestalt Psychology

 Gestalt – Form, configuration, whole, organization etc.

 Developed by Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer & Wolfgang Kohler.
 Organization of perception and thinking as a whole rather than
individual element.
 Developed as a reaction to structuralism.
 Main concept - "whole is different from sum of its parts".
 Gestalt psychologists argued that psychological phenomenon could
be understood only when viewed as organized structural wholes
and not when broken down into primitive perceptual elements. Eg:
When you listen to music, you perceive whole melodies even
though they are composed of separate notes.
 Gestalt Psychologists primary interest was perception. They
believed that perceptual experiences depend on the patterns
formed by stimulus and on the organization of experience.

7. Cognitive Psychology

 UlricNeisser- Founder of cognitive psychology

 UlricNeisser: Put the name Cognitive psychology in to common use
through his book ‘Cognitive Psychology’. He is also known for the
work on memory (Iconic and Echoic)

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  Developed from the concept of consciousness in structuralism.
 Focuses on how people know, understand, and think about the
world.
 Cognition refers to mental processes involved in acquiring
knowledge. Only by studying mental processes can we fully
understand what organisms do.
 Describing the pattern and regularities of the operation of mind.
 Use the analogy between mind and computer, not based on
introspection but it assumes that.
 Study mental processes in an objective fashion by focusing on
objective behavior.

BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

● Clinical Psychology

A branch concerned with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of

abnormal behavior.

● Industrial/Organizational psychology

Studies the psychology in action at the workplace, including productivity,

job satisfaction, and decision making.

● Health psychology

The branch of psychology that explore the relationship of psychological

factors and physical aliment or disease.

● Consumer psychology

A branch of psychology that studies and explains our buying habits and
our effects of advertising a buying behavior, mainly deal with the likes
and dislikes and preferences.

● Sport Psychology

The branch of psychology, that studies the psychological variables that

have an impact upon the sportspersons’ performance; e.g. how stress can
affect sport performance, how morale can be boosted, the role of self-
concept and esteem, the impact of crowd behavior etc.

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● Forensic Psychology

The branch of psychology that investigates legal issues and psychological

variables involved in criminal behavior ; e.g. what factors determine
criminal tendencies, how criminals be reformed, deciding what criteria
indicate that a person is legally insane, and whether larger and smaller
juries make fairer decisions.

● General psychology

This branch deals with the fundamental rules, principles and theories of
psychology in relation to the study of behaviour of normal adult human
beings. It explains various psychological processes like sensations,
perceptions, emotions, learning, intelligence, personality, etc.

● Physiological psychology:

This branch describes the biological basis of behaviour. There is a close

relationship between body and mind; the functions of each other are
mutually influenced. The functioning of the brain, nervous system,
endocrine glands and their relation to cognitive, Conative and affective
behaviour is explained in this branch of psychology.

● Developmental psychology

Human life passes through various stages of development from

conception to old age. This branch explains the growth and development
of various processes in relation to behaviour.

● Child psychology

Childhood extends from 2 to 12 years. This is a crucial period in the life.

Future life depends upon development during childhood. Growth and
development will be rapid during this stage. Child psychology deals with
these aspects.

● Social psychology

Human being is a social animal. Naturally the behaviour of an individual

is influenced by society and in turn influences the society. Social
psychology deals with interrelationships of people among themselves,
likes and dislikes of people, attitudes and interests, the prejudices and

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social distances people have, group behaviour, group cohesiveness,
group conflicts, etc.

● Educational psychology

This is the most important field where psychological principles are

applied. In the field of education ‘learner’ is the focal point. Other
aspects like management, teachers, teaching and learning aids are all
meant for learners. Learners differ in their abilities, hence they need
different approaches of teaching, learning material, etc. This branch
addresses to the problems and improvement in teaching and learning
processes.

● Counselling psychology

Mental disorders may not be completely and easily cured just by drugs
and other physical therapies. In addition to other therapies, these
patients need counselling also. Counselling is a process in which an
interaction takes place between a trained counsellor and a client. This
branch also helps people to overcome adjustment problems.

● Cross cultural psychology

Cross-cultural psychology is the study of similarities and differences in

behavior among individuals who have developed in different cultures.

● Cognitive psychology

Cognitive psychology is the “study of higher mental processes such as

attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, and
thinking.” As a scientific study of mind and mental functioning, the core
focus of modern cognitive psychology is on studying how people acquire,
process, and store information within the complex computing system
known as the human brain.

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METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY

1) Observational method

Observation is the systematic viewing of people’s actions and recording,

analysing and recording their behaviour, selectively. It involves the
direct observation of the phenomena in its natural settings.

Types of observational method

1. Controlled & Uncontrolled / Naturalistic

 In naturalistic observation a researcher engages in careful

observation of behavior without intervening directly with the
subjects. Are done in a natural or real life setting.
 Controlled observations are done in experimental set-up, ina
systematic way.

2. Structured/ Systematic & Unstructured

 Systematic observation have a structure format ie., done with a

proper plan. Checklist is prepared on the basis of the subject and
complete awareness of the subject is present.
 Unstructured observation is similar to naturalistic observation in
which no plan or structure is prepared for the observation.

3. Participant & Non-participant

 The participant observation means watching the events or

situation or activities from inside by taking part in the group to be
observed.
 When the observer observes the group passively from a distance
without participating in the group activities, it is known as non-
participant observation.

4. Aided & Unaided

 Direct observation without any instrument is called unaided

observation.
 Observation by using instruments is called aided observation.

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2) Interview method

It is a face to face conversation or verbal exchange between at least 2

individuals who are known as the interviewee (respondents) and
interviewer.

Types

 Structured interview: The interview is designed and detailed in

advance. A structured interview is pre-planned, accurate, and
consistent.
 Semi-structured interview: A semi-structured manner in which
certain keywords are used for questioning and the questions are
completely prepared.
 Unstructured interview: An unplanned one, where the interview
questionnaire is not prepared. Here, the effectiveness of the interview
is very less and there is a tremendous waste of time and effort of both
the interviewer and the interviewee.

3) Case study/ clinical method

Observational data collection technique in which one individual is

studied in-depth in order to identify behavioural, emotional, cognitive
and other aspects of the individual. When this method is applied to
victims of suicide the case studies are called psychological autopsies.

A variety of data collection techniques can be used in case studies. In

normal circumstances, typical techniques include interviewing the
subjects, interviewing people who are close to the subjects, direct
observation of the subjects, examination of records, and psychological
testing.

Clinical psychologists, who diagnose and treat psychological problems,

routinely do case studies of their clients.

4) Survey method

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In a survey researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather
information about specific aspects of participants’ background and
behavior.

Surveys are often used to obtain information on aspects of behavior that

are difficult to observe directly. Surveys also make it relatively easy to
collect data on attitudes and opinions from large samples of participants.
The major problem with surveys is that they depend on self-report data.

5) Questionnaire

A Questionnaire is a structured form, either written or printed, consists

of a formalized set of questions designed to collect information on some
subject or subjects from one or more respondents.

Types:

A. Closed ended questionnaire: Consist of questions which have multiple

options as answers and allow respondents to select a single option from
amongst them.

B. Open ended questionnaire: Consist of questions that allow the target

audience to voice their feelings and notions freely.

6) Correlational Research

Correlational methods look at the relationship or association between

two variables (IV & DV) without establishing cause and effect
relationships. The goal is to determine to what extent one variable
predicts the other.

The measure of correlation called the correlation coefficient, summarize

in one figure the direction and degree of correlation. It ranges from +1 to
-1.

Types of correlation

 Positive correlation: Increase in IV lead to increase in DV. Both

variables directly proportional to each other.
 Negative correlation: Increase in IV leads to decrease in DV.
Variables are inversely proportional.

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  Zero correlation: No relation between IV and DV.

7) Experimental method

● The experiment is a relatively powerful procedure that allows

researchers to detect cause-and-effect relationships.
● Experimental research involves the manipulation of an
independent variable to determine its effect on a dependent
variable.
● In an experiment the investigator typically assembles two groups
of subjects who are treated differently with regard to the
independent variable. These two groups are referred to as the
experimental group and the control group.
a. The experimental group consists of the subjects who
receive some special treatment in regard to the
independent variable.
b. The control group consists of similar subjects who do not
receive the special treatment given to the experimental
group.

Types of experiments

I. Laboratory/ controlled experiment

 Conducted in a well-controlled environment -not necessarily a
laboratory- and therefore accurate measurements are possible.
 Maximum manipulations occur.
 Can control extraneous and independent variables.
 The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at
what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and
using a standardized procedure.

II. Field experiment

 Are done in real life environment of the participants. The
experimenter still manipulates the IV, but in a real life setting.

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  Behavior is more likely to reflect real life because of its natural
setting.
 Less control over extraneous variables.

III. Natural experiment

 Conducted in the real life environment of the participants.
 Experimenter has no control over the IV, as it occurs naturally
in real life.
 No manipulations done
 Are naturally analyzed

Technique Description

Direct Observers are trained to watch and record behavior as

observation objectively and precisely as possible. They may use some
instrumentation, such as a stopwatch or video recorder.

Questionnaire Subjects are administered a series of written questions

designed to obtain information about attitudes, opinions, and
specific aspects of their behavior.

Interview A face-to-face dialogue is conducted to obtain information

about specific aspects of a subject’s behavior.

Psychological Subjects are administered a standardized measure to obtain a

test sample of their behavior. Tests are usually used to assess
mental abilities or personality traits.

Physiological An instrument is used to monitor and record a specific process

reading in a subject. Examples recording include measures of blood
pressure, heart rate, muscle tension, and brain activity.

Examination of The researcher analyzes existing institutional records (the

archival records archives), such as census, economic, medical, legal,
educational, and business records.

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 MODULE : 2
ATTENTION AND PERCEPTION

ATTENTION
 Attention is the behavioral and cognitive process of selectively
concentrating on a discrete aspect of information, whether
subjective or objective, while ignoring other perceivable Noticable
information.
 It refers to how actively we participate/ process specific
information in our environment. Attention is limited in terms of
both capacity and duration- It is selective.

1. Selective attention
 Process of focusing on a particular object in the environment for a
certain period of time.
 It is the phenomenon of concentrating on one activity at a time
while other activities are blocked out or are either not noticed or at
best vaguely noticed.

Dichotic listening‘ experiment

 Cherry, in the year 1953, studied the process of selectivity in
dichotic listening which is considered as an important
experimental study.
 He presented 2 messages to the subjects one to each ear with the
help of headphones. They were instructed to shadow (listen to the
message and repeat out the same loudly) one of them fed to one
ear.
 A different message was presented to each ear and the subjects
were instructed to listen to one only.
 They were then questioned to find out how much of each message
they had retained. The experiment shows that very little content
was picked up from the un-shadowed message.

2. Sustained attention/ Vigilance

 Ability to focus on an activity or stimulus over a long period of
time- a state of heightened concentration on the task.
 The phenomenon was first noticed during the World War II when
the radar operating soldiers were required to watch vigilantly the
incoming signals of enemy‘s aircrafts.

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 DeGangi and Porges (1990) indicate there are 3 stages to sustained
attention which include:
1) Attention getting,
2) Attention holding,
3) Attention releasing.

A. FACTORS AFFECTING ATTENTION

1. External/ Objective factors

 Nature of the stimulus: All types of stimuli are not able to bring
the same degree of attention. A picture attracts attention more
readily than words.

 Novelty: New kinds of objects draw our attention quickly.

 Intensity and size of the stimulus: In comparison with the

weak stimulus, the immense stimulus attracts more attention of an
individual.

 Contrast, change and variety: Change and variety strike

attention more easily than sameness and absence of change. The
factor, contact or change is highly responsible for capturing
attention of the organism and contributes more than the intensity,
size or nature of the stimulus.

 Repetition of stimulus: Repetition is the factor of great

importance in securing attention. Because one may ignore a
stimulus at first instance, but if it is repeated for several times it
captures our attention.

 Movement of the stimulus: The moving stimulus catches our

attention more quickly than a stimulus that does not move. We are
more sensitive to objects that move in our field of vision.

 Duration and degree of attention: People may possess the

ability to grasp a number of objects or in other words, to attend a
number of stimuli in one short ―presentation‖. This ability of an
individual is evaluated in terms of the span of attention, which
differs from person to person and even situation to situation.

 Clarity: An object or sound which can be experienced clearly

draws our attention than the stimuli which are not clear. For

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 example, during night times stars and planets which are seen
clearly draw our attention.

2. Internal/ Organismic/Subjective factors

1. Interest: Interest is said to be the mother of attention. We attend to
objects in which we have interest. In any get-together if any subject of
our interest is discussed that attracts our attention easily and makes us
to participate in the discussion.

2. Motives: Our basic needs and motives to a great extent, determine

our attention.

3. Mind set: Person‘s readiness to respond determines his attention. If

we are expecting a stimulus, occurrence of that stimulus along with
many other stimuli may not come in the way of attending to that
particular stimulus.

4. Moods and attitudes: What we attend to is influenced by the

moods and attitudes. When we are disturbed or in angry mood, we
notice the smallest mistake of others very easily. Likewise our favourable
and unfavourable attitudes also determine our attention.

5. Emotional state: Attention is disturbed during emotional state. It

also affects our perception.

6. Habits: Our attention is diverted automatically towards the things to

which we are habituated.

7. Social suggestion: In general, we tend to attend what is pointed out

directly and indirectly by the others. This is so because we have had
enjoyed many satisfactions and avoided discomforts or injuries in the
past acting on suggestions by the others.

B. CONDITIONS OF ATTENTION

a) Span Of Attention/ Perceptual Span

 It refers to the amount of information an observer can take into
his focus of attention from among a complex array of stimuli at
a single momentary exposure.

PSYCHOCRASH
  This span is determined by using an instrument called
Techistoscope. Span of attention varies within the limit of seven
plus or minus two (7 ± 2).
 This is commonly known as magic number.

b) Distraction Of Attention
Diverting of the attention of an individual or group from the chosen
object of attention into the source of distraction.

c) Set In Attention
A perceptual set is the readiness to interpret a stimulus in a certain
way. A mental set is a predisposition to think about a situation or a
problem in a specific way.

d) Fluctuation of Attention
Attention is not steady or concentrated throughout. At one time an
object comes into focus at another time it goes out.
In other words, fluctuation of attention is waxing and waning‘ of
attention in which at one moment the attended object or stimulus
comes within one‘s attention, while at another moment it disappears.

e) Shift of Attention
In shift of attention, our attention passes from one stimulus to
another or from one aspect of the stimulus to another aspect of the
stimulus. Basic difference between fluctuation and shift of attention
is that in the former case, the same object appears or disappears from
our focus of attention while in the latter case, our attention shifts
from one part or aspect to another part or aspect.

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Sensation: It is the input about the physical world provided by our

sensory receptors.

Perception: It is the selection, organization, and interpretation of

sensory input. Sensation involves the absorption of energy, conversion
of this energy into neural impulses, translation of this input into
something meaningful.

PSYCHOCRASH
 Stimulus: It is a source of physical energy that produces a
response in the sense organs.

 Response: It is any reaction of an organism to or in the presence

of a stimulus.

 Sensory Receptors: Cells specialized for the task of

transduction—converting physical energy (light, sound) into neural
impulses.

 Psychophysics: A branch of psychology studies the relationship

between the intensity of a stimulus and its sensory response OR
how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience.

PSYCHOCRASH
 Important contributor - Gustav Fechner.

 Threshold (Limen): A dividing point between energy levels that

do and do not have a detectable effect.

 Absolute threshold (Reiz leimen) : Minimum stimulus intensity

that an organism can detect 50% of the time. The least amount of
physical energy that can be detected.

 Difference Threshold: The amount by which two stimuli must

differ in order to be just noticeably different.

 Just noticeable difference (JND): The smallest difference in

stimulus intensity that a specific sense can detect. It is the amount
something must be changed in order for a difference to be
noticeable, detectable at least half of the time.

 Subliminal Perception- Stimuli below threshold. The

presumed ability to perceive a stimulus that is below the threshold
for conscious experience.

A. PERCEIVING FORMS, PATTERNS AND OBJECTS

 Perceptual Set: A readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular

way. Notice only certain aspects of object while rejecting others.
 Feature analysis: Feature analysis is the process of detecting
specific elements in visual input and assembling them into a more
complex form. To perceive an object in our environment, we first
react to individual aspects such as, shape, pattern, object or scene.
We start from these individual components and move to
comprehend the overall nature of what we perceived.
 Bottom-up processing (Stimulus driven): A progression from
individual elements to the whole.
 Top-down processing( Conceptually driven): A progression
from the whole to the elements.

PSYCHOCRASH
B. PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION

1. Gestalt Laws/ Principle

Principles describing how we tend to group discrete stimulus
together in a perceptual world.

2. Figure ground relationship

Dividing visual displays into figure and ground.
 Figure: The thing being looked at. It seems to have more
substance, shape and location, appear closer to the viewer, and
seem to stand out in front of the ground.
 Ground-No shape and location. Seems to continue behind the
figure as the background.

3. Phi- Phenomenon
 Phi Phenomenon: Illusion of movement created by presenting
visual stimuli in rapid succession. Stationary objects ( light bulbs )
are placed side by side and illuminated rapidly one after another
resulting in moving lights.

C. PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES

 Size: The tendency to perceive a physical object as having a

constant size even when the size of the image it casts on the retina
changes.
 2 factors contributing:
1. Ability to perceive distance accurately.
2. LTM→ experience of size stored.

 Shape: The tendency to perceive a physical object as having a

constant shape even when the image it casts on the retina changes.

 Brightness: The tendency to perceive objects as having a constant

brightness even when they are viewed under different conditions of
illumination.

PSYCHOCRASH
 D. VISUAL ILLUSIONS
 A misperception of external visual stimuli that occurs as a result of
a misinterpretation of the stimuli, such as a geometric illusion.
 Visual illusions are among the most common type of illusion.

a) Moon Illusion
The full moon appears to be much
smaller when over-head than when
looming on the horizon.

b) Ponzo Illusion
The upper and lower horizontal lines
are the same length, but the upper
one appears longer.

c) Muller Lyer Illusion

 Result from a combination of size
constancy processes and misperception of depth. Lines of equal
length appear unequal.
 Lines with arrow head perceived longer than line with feather
head.

THEORIES OF COLOR VISION

Trichromatic Theory/ Young-Helmholtz theory

 First stated by Thomas Young and modified later by Hermann von
Helmholtz (1852).
 the ability to perceive colors results from the joint action of 3 receptor
types sensitive to different light wavelengths- - red, green and blue.
 The theory however fails to account for aspects of color vision, such as
the occurrence of negative after image.

PSYCHOCRASH
 Opponent process theory
 Ewald Hering proposed the opponent process theory in 1878.
 theory holds that color perception depends on receptors that make
antagonistic responses to three pairs of colors. So that activation of one
member of the pair inhibits activity of the other.
 The 3 opposing color pairs are: Blue- Yellow; Red- Green; Black- White.
 The antagonistic processes in this theory provide plausible explanations
for complementary afterimages.

NOTE: Trichromatic theory explains how color coding occurs in the

cones of the retina, whereas opponent process theory accounts for
processing in higher order nerve cells.

THEORIES OF AUDITORY PERCEPTION

Theories of auditory perception account for how sound waves are
physiologically translated into the perceptions of pitch, loudness, and
timbre.

1. Place Theory
Hermann von Helmholtz (1863) proposed. This model, called place
theory, holds that perception of pitch corresponds to the vibration of
different portions, or places, along the basilar membrane.

2. Frequency Theory –Frequency theory holds that perception of pitch

corresponds to the rate, or frequency, at which the entire basilar
membrane vibrates.

 Volley Principle Theory

Wever and Bray (1937) - The volley principle holds that groups of
auditory nerve fibers fire neural impulses in rapid succession, creating
volleys of impulses. These volleys exceed the 1000-per-second limit.
Studies suggest that auditory nerves can team up like this to generate
volleys of up to 5000 impulses per second.

PSYCHOCRASH
 MODULE: 3

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

It is the awareness of internal and external stimuli OR It is the mental

awareness of sensation, perception, memories and feelings you are aware
at any instant.

Our awareness mainly includes:

1. Our awareness of external events (eg: the professor just asked

you a hard question)

2. Our awareness of internal sensation (eg: increase in heart rate,

sweating)

3. Our awareness of our self as the unique being having these

experiences (―Why me?‖)

4. Our awareness of our thoughts about these experiences.

Therefore, consciousness is a personal awareness. It can be our thoughts,

feelings, emotions etc.

A. NATURE OF CONSCIOSNESS
 The mainstream view - consciousness is a purely passive awareness
of self and world which emerges out of the complexity of brain.
 According to Indian tradition, there are two main thoughts the first
agree with the main stream view.
 The Indian pure consciousness view holds that consciousness is
the primary reality, but wonders whether the physical world might
not be an illusion. The second view agrees with the first, but it
takes matter as equally real as spirit.

B. STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS

 Waking consciousness: State of consciousness in which we are

awake, alert and aware of our thoughts, feelings, sensations and
 our environment. It is the stage at which maximum mental
processing occurs.
 Altered state of consciousness: Stage during which minimum
mental processing occurs. Eg: When the mind is blank, day
dreaming, sleeping and dreaming, hypnosis, meditation and
hallucination.

C. Biological Rhythm
 Variations in consciousness are shaped in part by biological
rhythms.
 The daily alternation of light and darkness, the annual pattern of
the seasons and the phases of the moon all reflect this rhythmic
quality of repeating cycles.
 Biological rhythms are periodic fluctuations in
physiological functioning.
 The existence of these rhythms means that organisms have
internal biological clocks that somehow monitor the passage of
time. It‘s like an internal master clock that coordinates the other
clocks in your body.

1. Circadian rhythms
 A circadian rhythm is a biological rhythm that takes place over a
period of about 24 hours.
 Circadian rhythms are the 24-hour biological cycles
found in human and in many other species.
 Our sleep-wake cycle, which is linked to our environment‘s natural
light-dark cycle, is perhaps the most obvious example of a
circadian rhythm, but we also have daily fluctuations in heart rate,
blood pressure, blood sugar, and body temperature.

 Role of circadian rhythm

 In humans, circadian rhythms are particularly influential in
regulation of sleep.
 Daily cycle also produce rhythmic variations in blood pressure,
urine production, hormonal secretions and other physical
functions.
 These cycles affect alertness, short-term memory, and other
aspects of cognitive performance.
 Body temperature varies rhythmically in a daily cycle
  Neural pathway
 When exposed to light, some receptors in the retina send direct
inputs to a small structure in the hypothalamus called the supra-
chiasmatic nucleus (SCN).
 The SCN then sends signals to the nearby pineal glands, whose
secretion of the hormone melatonin plays a key role in adjusting
biological clocks.

Jet Lag
 When you fly across several time zones, your biological clock keeps
time as usual, even though official clock time changes. You then go
to sleep at the “wrong” time and are likely to experience difficulty
falling asleep and poor quality sleep. This poor sleep can continue
for several days and can make you feel fatigued, sluggish and
irritable.
 Jet lag is the experience of fatigue, lack of concentration and
reduced cognitive skills that occur when travelers biological clock
are out of synchrony with the external clock time at their new
locations.
 People suffering from jet lag get their circadian rhythms realigned
within a matter of days, but workers on night or rotating shifts are
constantly at odds with local time cues and normal rhythms. These
work schedules can also have a negative impact on employees
productiveness and accident proneness at work, the quality of their
social relations at home and their mental health.

Alternatives to reduce jet lag

 Giving people small doses of the melatonin hormone medications

can regulate the human biological clock. It can reduce the effects of
jet lag by helping travelers re-synchronize their biological clocks.
 Carefully timed exposure to bright light can be used as a treatment
to realign circadian rhythms in rotating shift workers in industrial
settings.
 D. SLEEPING AND WAKING CYCLE

A. SLEEP
 A single, uniform state of physical and mental inactivity, during
which the brain become “shut down”.
 Sleep is a periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness- Is
distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general
anesthesia, or hibernation. It is an innate biological rhythm.
 Sleep is measured in sleep laboratories with instruments such as:
1. EEG
2. EMG- Electro Myo Graph: Device which records muscular
activity and tension.
3. EOG- Electro Oculo Graph: Device which records eye
movements.

a) Sleep Cycle
 Sleep is a process in which important physiological changes and
slowing of basic bodily functions are accompanied by major shift in
consciousness. Sleep is defined as unconsciousness from which the
person can be aroused by sensory or other stimuli. There are
multiple stages of sleep, from very light sleep to very deep sleep.
On an average people spend one third of their entire lives sleeping.

 Reseachers show that it takes almost 25 minutes for a person to fall

asleep. During sleep, people cycle through a series of 5 stages:
 Stage 1-4: Non REM sleep
 Stage 1 &2: Light sleep
 Stage 3 & 4: Deep sleep
 Stage 5: REM sleep/ paradoxical sleep

 The sleep cycle of alternate NREM and REM sleep takes an average
of 90 minutes, occurring 4 to 6 times in a good night sleep.

Stage 1

 It is a brief transitional stage of light sleep that usually last only a

few minutes (1-7min).
  Breathing and heart rate slow down as muscle tension and body
temperature decline.
 The alpha waves that probably dominated EEG activity just before
falling asleep give way to lower-frequency EEG activity in which
theta waves are prominent.
 A person experiences a feeling of floating in and out of
consciousness, muscles of the body relax.
 During this stage, many people experience a sudden muscle
contractions preceded by a sensation of falling that holds you back
into consciousness. This muscle contraction is called hypnic jerk.

Stage 2

 As the sleeper descends through stages 2, 3, and 4 of the cycle,

respiration rate, heart rate, muscle tension, and body temperature
continue to decline.
 During stage 2, which typically lasts about 10–25 minutes, brief
bursts of higher-frequency brain waves, called sleep spindles,
appear against a background of mixed EEG activity.
 Gradually, brain waves become higher in amplitude and slower in
frequency, as the body moves into a deeper form of sleep, called
slow-wave sleep.
 It is an unstructured period that alternate between muscle tone
and muscle relaxation.

Stage 3 & 4

 Slow wave sleep (SWS) consists of sleep stages 3 and 4, during

which high-amplitude, low-frequency delta waves become
prominent with occasional faster waves. Typically, individuals
reach slow-wave sleep in about a half-hour and stay there for
roughly 30 minutes.
 This is a deep sleep where there is slow or no eye movement,
body becomes immobile but the muscles still have the ability to
function.
  Although slow wave sleep is frequently called “dreamless sleep”,
dreams and sometimes nightmares do occur during slow-wave
sleep.
 It is in these stages a person may experience sleep walking, night
terrors, talking during sleep and bed wetting. These behaviors are
known as parasomnias and tend to occur during the transition
between NREM and REM sleep.
 This is the deep restful sleep that the person experience during the
first hour of sleep after having been awake for many hours.
 Function:
 Slow-wave sleep is considered important for memory
consolidation.
 During deep sleep, human growth hormone is released and
restores our body and muscles from the stresses of the day.
 Our immune system also restores itself.
 Allow the brain to recover from its daily activities for new
learning.
 Glucose metabolism in the brain increases as a result of tasks
that demand mental activity.

After the slow wave sleep, the cycle reverses itself and the sleeper
gradually moves back upward through the lighter stages.

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep

 The REM stage is marked by irregular breathing and pulse rate.

Muscle tone is extremely relaxed—so much so that bodily
movements are minimal and the sleeper is virtually paralyzed.
 Although REM is a relatively deep stage of sleep, EEG activity is
dominated by high-frequency beta waves that resemble those
observed when people are alert and awake.
 REM sleep occurs in episodes that occupy about 25% of the sleep
time in young adults; each episodes normally recur about every 90
minutes. This type of sleep is not so restful, usually associated with
vivid dreaming.
 Dreaming is most frequent, vivid, and memorable during REM
sleep.
  Heart rate and respiratory rate usually becomes irregular, which is
characteristic of the dream state.
 During the course of a night, people usually repeat the sleep cycle
about four times. In a normal night sleep, bouts of REM sleep
lasting 5 to 30 minutes usually appear on the average every 90
minutes. When the person is extremely sleepy, each bout of REM
sleep is short and may even be absent. Conversely, as the person
becomes more rested through the night, the duration of the REM
bouts increase at around 40–60 minutes in length.

b) Functions of sleep
 Sleep is essential to protect the mental and physical health of an
individual, in addition to improving the quality of life.
 It activates neurons; helps in reconstruction of neurons.
 During sleep, growth hormones get maximum activated.
 Sleep plays an important role in the function of the brain, by
forming new pathways and processing information. Research has
shown that adequate sleep helps to improve memory and learning,
increase attention and creativity and aid in making decisions.
 It plays an essential role in consolidation of memory and the
selection of important information and stimuli received
throughout the day.
 It is believed that sleeping and dreaming help in the process of
sorting through experiences and memories to isolate and store the
specific detail of the memory.
 ‘When we dream, we get the pieces; When we wake, we can know
the whole’

Types of sleeping disorder:

1. Insomnia
 Most common sleep disorder.
 Insomnia refers to chronic problems in getting adequate
sleep.
 It occurs in three basic patterns:
(1) difficulty in falling asleep initially
 (2) difficulty in remaining asleep
(3) persistent early-morning awakening.
 Insomnia is associated with daytime fatigue, impaired
functioning, an elevated risk for accidents, reduced
productivity, absenteeism at work, depression, and increased
health problems.
 The prevalence of insomnia increases with age and is about
50% more common in women than in men.
Causes:
Insomnia has many causes.
 excessive anxiety and tension
 emotional problems, such as depression, or of
significant stress.
 health problems such as back pain, ulcers, and asthma
can lead to difficulties falling or staying asleep.
 The use of certain drugs, especially stimulants
Treatment
Benzodiazepine medications, which were originally designed
to relieve anxiety, have become the most widely prescribed
class of sedatives.

2. Narcolepsy
 sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking
periods.
 A person suffering from narcolepsy goes directly from
wakefulness into REM sleep, usually for a short period of
time (10–20 minutes).
 This is a potentially dangerous condition, since some victims
fall asleep instantly, even while driving a car or operating
machinery.
 Prevalence: 0.05% of the population.
 Its causes are not well understood, but some people appear
to be genetically predisposed to the disease.
 Treatment by stimulant drugs
3. Sleep apnea
 Sleep apnea involves frequent, reflexive gasping for air that
awakens a person and disrupts sleep.
 Apnea occurs when a person literally stops breathing for a
minimum of 10 seconds and is usually accompanied by loud
snoring.
 Prevalence: Is seen in about 2% of women and about 4% of
men between the ages of 30 and 60.
 Sleep apnea often leads to insomnia as a side effect.
 Treatment: Apnea may be treated with surgery or drug
therapy.

4. Night mares
 Nightmares are anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to
awakening, usually from REM sleep.
 A person who awakens from a nightmare recalls a vivid
dream and may have difficulty getting back to sleep.
 Significant stress in one’s life is associated with increased
frequency and intensity of nightmares.
 Prevalence: 10% of adults- More common in women.
 If a child’s nightmares are frequent and unpleasant,
counseling may prove helpful. Otherwise, treatment is
unnecessary, as most children outgrow the problem.

5. Night terrors/ Sleep terrors

 Night terrors are abrupt awakenings from NREM sleep
accompanied by intense autonomic arousal and feelings of
panic. usually occur during stage 4 sleep early in the night.
 Victims typically let out a piercing cry, bolt upright, and then
stare into space. They do not usually recall a coherent dream,
although they may remember a simple, frightening image.
The panic normally fades quickly, and a return to sleep is
fairly easy.
 Night terrors occur in adults, but they are especially common
in children ages 3 to 8.
6. Somnambulism
 Somnambulism, or sleepwalking, occurs when a person
arises and wanders about while remaining asleep.
 occur during the first 2 hours of sleep, (slow-wave sleep) and
may last from 15 seconds to 30 minutes.
 Sleepwalkers may awaken during their journey, or they may
return to bed without any recollection of their excursion.

7. Bruxism
 Bruxism is a condition in which you grind, gnash or clench
your teeth.
 If you have bruxism, you may unconsciously clench your
teeth when you're awake (awake bruxism) or clench or grind
them during sleep (sleep bruxism).
 Sleep bruxism is considered a sleep-related movement
disorder.

8. Sleep talking
 Sleep-talking (or somniloquy) is a parasomnia that refers to
talking aloud while asleep.
 It can range from simple mumbling sounds to loud shouts
and long, frequently inarticulate speeches, and can occur
many times during a sleep cycle.
 Sleep-talking usually occurs during delta-wave NREM sleep
stages.

9. Sleep deprivation
 Sleep deprivation, also known as sleep insufficiency or
sleeplessness, is the condition of not having adequate
duration and/or quality of sleep to support decent alertness,
performance, and health.
 It can be either chronic or acute and may vary widely in
severity.
 Symptoms: Not enough sleep, low-quality sleep, poor
memory, fatigue.
 Complications: Car and work accidents, weight gain,
cardiovascular disease.
  Causes: Insomnia, sleep apnea, voluntary imposition (school,
work), mood disorders
 Treatment: Sleep hygiene, talk therapy, caffeine (to induce
alertness), sleeping pill

E. DREAM

Dream is a sequence of images, emotions and thoughts passing through

a sleeping person’s mind. They are involuntary and typically occur
during the rapid-eye movement (REM) stage. Although dreams can
occur at other points in the sleep cycle, they’re most vivid and
memorable during REM.

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC VIEW

According to the idea, dreams express unconscious wishes or impulses

According to Freud, dreams provide a useful means for probing the
unconscious thoughts, impulses and whishes that lie outside the
real of conscious experiences
He believed that we can give expression to impulses and desires we find
an acceptable -during our waking hours. But, he was not able to provide
clear-cut rules for interpreting dreams and ways of determining whether
such interpretations are accurate.

Freud asserted that the wish-fulfilling quality of many dreams may not
be readily apparent because the true meaning of dreams may be
disguised. Freud distinguished between the manifest content and the
latent content of a dream. The manifest content consists of the plot of a
dream at a surface level. The latent content refers to the hidden or
disguised meaning of the events in the plot.

PHYSIOLOGICAL RESTORATION

Physiological theories claim that dreams are a product of neural firing in

the brain. Psychological theories claim dreams are a way of processing
issues in our lives.

Physiological theories claim that dreams are a product of processes in

the body that the brain interprets when we sleep. Psychological theories
claim dreams are a way of processing issues in our lives.
Physiological theories claim that dreams are a product of neural firing in
the brain. Psychological theories claim dreams are a way for the brain to
correct some kind of existing disorder.

Physiological theories claim that dreams are a product of some kind of

existing disorder in the brain. Psychological theories claim dreams are a
way of processing issues in our lives.

COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
From a cognitive perspective, dreams express people's "conceptions,"
which are also the basis for action in the waking world. Dreams are a
dramatic and perceptible embodiment of schemas, scripts, and general
knowledge.

They are like plays that the mind stages for itself when it doesn't have
anything specific to do.

In particular, many dream scenarios express several key aspects of

people's conceptual systems, especially self-conceptions, which can be
defined as a set of cognitive generalizations about the person that guide
the processing of self-relevant information and events.

Starting with the idea that dreams often reveal highly personal
conceptions, it is possible build a complex picture of a dreamer's overall
conceptual system because people usually have more than one
conception of themselves.

F. ALTERED STATE OF CONSCIOSNESS

HYPNOSIS
 Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness characterized by
narrowed attention and an increased openness to suggestion.
 Hypnosis is a systematic procedure that typically produces a
heightened state of suggestibility. It may also lead to passive
relaxation, narrowed attention, and enhanced fantasy.
 18th-century Austrian physician Franz Anton Mesmer put forward
the idea of hypnosis by the term mesmerism.
  Scottish physician, James Braid popularized the term hypnotism in
1843, borrowing it from the Greek word for sleep.
 Hypnotic susceptibility: How easily a person can be hypnotized.
 It involves a special type of interaction blw two persons in which the
bypnotist employs suggestions to induse changes in the behaviour,
feelings or cognition of the Subjected person.
 The social - cognitive views suggests that the effects of hypnosis Stem
from the bypnotized person's expectations and efforts to play the role of
hypnotized Subject.

MEDITATION

 The practice of meditation is a way of learing to experience more

fully. out moment -by-moment existences by encountering the
mind directly.
 It involves increasing awareness of the body, emotions, thoughts,
the mind and mental qualities
 Meditation refers to a family of techniques which have in common
a conscious attempt to focus attention in a non-analytical ways and
an attempt not to dwell on discursive, Auminating thought. It is of
two types:

G. PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS
 Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that modify mental,
emotional, or behavioral functioning.
 Not all psychoactive drugs produce effects that lead to recreational
use. Generally, people prefer drugs that elevate their mood or
produce other pleasurable alterations in consciousness.
 There are two categories of psychoactive drugs; agonist and
antagonist drugs.
 An agonist drug is “a drug that binds to a receptor and triggers a
response in the cell, it mimics or enhances a neurotransmitters
effect”.
 An antagonist drug is “a drug that binds to the receptor and
triggers a response in the cell that blocks a neurotransmitters effect”.
 a) Addiction

It refers to a behavioral pattern of drug abuse that is marked by an

overwhelming and compulsive desire to obtain and use the drug. Even
after stopping, the person has a strong tendency to relapse and begin
using the drug again.

b) Tolerance

Tolerance refers to a progressive decrease in a person’s responsiveness to

a drug. Tolerance usually leads people to consume larger and larger
doses of a drug to attain the effects they desire.

It means that after a person uses a drug repeatedly over a period of time,
the original dose of the drug doesn’t produce the desired effect, so that a
person must take increasingly larger doses of the drug to achieve the
same behavioral effect.

c) Withdrawal symptoms

These are painful physical and psychological symptoms such as

sweating, tremors, tension that occur after a drug-dependent person
stops using the drug.

Types of drugs

1. Stimulants
 Stimulants are drugs that tend to increase central nervous
system activation and behavioral activity.
 eg: caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines.
 Stimulants produce euphoria, a buoyant, elated, energetic “I
can conquer the world!” feeling accompanied by increased
alertness.
 Methods of Ingestion: Oral, sniffed, injected, freebased,
smoked
 Principal Medical Uses: Treatment of hyperactivity and
narcolepsy, local anesthetic (cocaine only).
  Desired Effects: Elation, excitement, increased alertness,
increased energy, reduced fatigue
 Potential Short-Term Side Effects: Increased blood pressure
and heart rate, increased talkativeness, restlessness,
irritability, insomnia, reduced appetite, increased sweating
and urination, anxiety, paranoia, increased aggressiveness,
panic

2. Cannabis
 Cannabis is the hemp plant from which marijuana,
hashish, and THC are derived.
 Methods of Ingestion: Smoked, oral
 Principal Medical Uses: Treatment of glaucoma and
chemotherapy—induced nausea and vomiting; other uses
under study
 Desired Effects: Mild and relaxed euphoria, relaxation,
altered perceptions, enhanced sensory awareness
 Potential Short-Term Side Effects: Elevated heart rate,
bloodshot eyes, dry mouth, reduced short-term memory,
sluggish motor coordination, sluggish mental functioning,
and anxiety.

3. Alcohols
 Alcohol encompasses a variety of beverages containing ethyl
alcohol, such as beers, wines, and distilled spirits.
 Methods of Ingestion: Drinking
 Principal Medical Uses: None
 Desired Effects: Mild euphoria, relaxation, anxiety reduction,
reduced inhibition
 Potential Short-Term Side Effects: Severely impaired
coordination, impaired mental functioning, increased
urination, emotional swings, depression, quarrelsomeness,
and hangover.

4. Opiates
  Narcotics, or opiates, are drugs derived from opium that are
capable of relieving pain.
 The main drugs in this category are heroin and morphine
 Methods of Ingestion: Injected, smoked, oral
 Principal Medical Use: Pain relief
 Desired Effects: Euphoria, relaxation, anxiety reduction, pain
relief
 The euphoric effect has a relaxing, “Who cares?” quality.
 Potential Short-Term Side Effects: Lethargy, drowsiness,
nausea, impaired coordination, impaired mental functioning,
constipation.

5. Hallucinogens
 of drugs that have powerful effects on mental and emotional
functioning, marked most prominently by distortions in
sensory and perceptual experience.
 eg: LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin.
 Methods of Ingestion: Oral
 Principal Medical Use: None
 Desired Effects: Increased sensory awareness, euphoria,
altered perceptions, hallucinations, insightful experiences
 Potential Short-Term Side Effects: Dilated pupils, nausea,
emotional swings, paranoia, jumbled thought processes,
impaired judgment, anxiety, panic reaction

6. Sedatives
 sleep-inducing drugs that tend to decrease central nervous
system (CNS) activation and behavioral activity.
 Barbiturates and Non-barbiturates.
 Methods of Ingestion: Oral, injected
 Principal Medical Uses: Sleeping pill, anticonvulsant
 Desired Effects: Euphoria, relaxation, anxiety reduction,
reduced inhibitions
 The euphoria is similar to that produced by drinking large
amounts of alcohol.
  Potential Short-Term Side Effects: Lethargy, drowsiness,
severely impaired coordination, impaired mental
functioning, dejection.

7. MDMA/ Ecstasy
 MDMA is a compound drug related to both amphetamines
and hallucinogens, especially mescaline.
 Desired effects: Users report that they feel warm, friendly,
euphoric, sensual, insightful, and empathetic, but alert and
energetic.
 Side effects: increased blood pressure, muscle tension,
sweating, blurred vision, insomnia, and transient anxiety.
 MODULE: 4

LEARNING

CONCEPT OF LEARNING

Nature Of Learning

“Any relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience”

- Kings and Morgan

 Learning is permanent.
 It doesn’t refer to changes from maturation
 Learning involves experiences.
 Changes due to habituation are not learning.
 Learning is universal.
 Learning is an adjustment – helps individual adjust, modify and
adapt to situations.
 Learning is not directly observable but can be inferred through
performance.
 Performance: A persons observed behavior response or actions

LEARNING CURVE

 First person to describe learning curve was Hermann Ebbinghaus

(1885). His tests involved memorizing series of nonsense syllables
and rewarding the success over a number of trials.
 Nonsense syllable: Any of numerous letter combinations without
meaning, used in learning experiments. Example: ABC
 Learning curve is the graphical representation of the progression of
learning.
 The shape of a learning curve depends upon behavior being
learned and the criterion employed to measure (i.e., the term in
which learning is measured).

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 The learning curve in general shows the direction of progress and
the rate at which performance is changed.
 Normally learning curve comprises of 4 stages:
 Initial stage/ Lag phase: In lag phase the learning is merely
zero for first few practices.
 Steep up stage/ Second stage: It is also called log or
exponential phase. In this stage the learning is suddenly
increased and rate of improvement is substantial.
 Intermediate stage: This is the transitional period where you
expect a change to occur.
 Stationary Phase: Now, there is no progress in learning or
improvement is arrested. So, it is called Plateau. Skinner
says ‘a plateau is a horizontal stretch indicative of apparent
progress ’. It places an important role in learning process
because when such a stage is reached, a learning curve
becomes almost flat.

 Learning curve are of 3 types:

1. Concave curve/ Positively accelerated curve: It depicts
slow initial improvement in learning that increases with time
leading towards the mastery of learning materials. At the initial
the rate of progress may be slower, but at the final the learning
rate increases noticeably. This learning curve is often occurring
in the learning situation. Here the task may be new one or
difficult one to the student at the beginning. But with the
increasing practice he is mastery over that at the end.

2. Convex curve/ Negatively accelerated curve: This

learning curve is also called negatively accelerated curve. It
depicts rapid initial improvement in learning that decreases
with time. At the initial the rate of progress maybe faster, but at
the final the learning rate slows down noticeably. This learning

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 curve is occurring in the learning situations where the task is
simple or learner has had previous practice on a similar task. No
zero learning present.

3. Concave convex curve: The third curve involves the

combination of the first two concave and convex curves, is
known as Concave-Convex Curve. It looks like an English letter
‘S’. So called S-shaped curve. In the beginning this is depending
upon the nature of the learner, learning material and the
learning environment. It is normally obtained where the
situation the learner study the entire learning from zero
performance to its mastery.

TYPES OF LEARNING
1. Associative Learning
Associative learning is a style of learning that happens when two
unrelated elements become connected in our brains through a
process known as conditioning.
 classical conditioning
 operant conditioning

2. Cognitive Learning
Cognitive Learning is a type of learning that is active, constructive,
and long-lasting. It engages students in the learning processes,

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 teaching them to use their brains more effectively to make
connections when learning new things.
 latent learning
 sign learning

3. Observational learning
Observational learning is the process of learning by watching the
behaviors of others. The targeted behavior is watched, memorized,
and then mimicked. Also known as shaping and modeling

ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING Text

A. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Classical conditioning was first studied in detail by Russian

physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who conducted experiments with dogs.
He won the 1904 Nobel Prize for his work studying digestive processes.

Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which

one stimulus comes to serve as a signal for occurrence of
another stimulus. i.e., the process by which a naturally occurring
stimulus is paired with a stimulus in the environment, and as a result,
the environmental stimulus eventually elicits the same response as the
natural stimulus.

Pavlov’s dog experiment- An accidental discovery

 Dog placed in a box and harnessed for several days. He inserted a
small test tube into the cheek of each dog to measure saliva when
the dogs were fed.
 Pavlov predicted the dogs would salivate in response to the food
placed in front of them, but he noticed that his dogs would begin to
salivate whenever they heard the footsteps of his assistant who was
bringing them the food.
 When Pavlov discovered that any object or event which the dogs
learned to associate with food (such as the lab assistant) would
trigger the same response, he realized that he had made an

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 important scientific discovery. Accordingly, he devoted the rest of
his career to studying this type of learning.
 Pavlov concluded that stimuli that had no previous relation to a
particular ‘psychic reflex’ could come to trigger that reflex.

a) Unconditioned stimulus and response

 Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in classical conditioning is a
naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary and
unlearned response.
 The term unconditioned means “unlearned.” This is the stimulus
that ordinarily leads to the involuntary response.
 In the case of Pavlov’s dogs, the food is the unconditioned stimulus.
 Unconditioned response (UCR) in classical conditioning
is an involuntary and unlearned response to a naturally
occurring or unconditioned stimulus.
 For example, in Pavlov’s experiment, the salivation to the food is
the UCR (unconditioned response).

b) Conditioned stimulus and response

 Conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning is a
previously neutral stimulus that becomes able to produce a
conditioned response, after pairing with an unconditioned stimulus.
 In Pavlov’s original study, the sight of the food dish itself became a
stimulus for salivation before the food was given to the dogs. At this
point, the dish was a neutral stimulus (NS) because it had no
effect on salivation.
 Conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning is a learned
response to a conditioned stimulus. The response that is given to the
CS (conditioned stimulus) is not usually quite as strong as the
original unconditioned response (UCR), but it is essentially the same
response

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c) Acquisition: Acquisition refers to the initial stage of learning
something.Pavlov theorized that the acquisition of a conditioned
response depends on stimulus contiguity, or the occurrence of
stimuli together in time and space.

d) Extinction: Extinction is the disappearance or weakening of a

learned response following the removal or absence of the
unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or the removal
of a reinforcer (in operant conditioning).

e) Spontaneous recovery: Spontaneous recovery is the

reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred.

f) Higher-order conditioning: occurs when a strong conditioned

stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, causing the neutral
stimulus to become a second conditioned stimulus.
 2 stages involved: one regular conditioning (Salivation to bell); 2nd
– New UCS (light) paired with CS (bell) but without food. Thus,
dog salivate to flash light.

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 g) Stimulus generalization: The
tendency of stimuli similar to a
conditioned stimulus to evoke
conditioned responses.
For example, a dog conditioned to
salivate to a tone of a particular pitch and
loudness will also salivate with
considerable regularity in response to
tones of higher and lower pitch.

h) Stimulus discrimination: The

process by which organisms learn to
respond to certain stimuli but not to
others.

B. APPLICATION OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

1. Aversion therapy: Aversion therapy is a behavioral therapy in
which a patient gives up an undesirable habit by associating it with an
unpleasant effect.
Example: To treat alcohol addiction- By placing a nausea-induced
drug in an alcoholic’s drink, they feel incredibly ill after just one
drink. Over time, the alcoholic associates drinking with severe nausea,
and they no longer crave alcohol.

2. Systematic desensitization: Systematic desensitization, also

known as graduated exposure therapy, is a type of behavior
therapy developed by South African psychiatrist, Joseph Wolpe. It
is used to overcome phobias and other anxiety disorders that are
based on classical conditioning.
This process uses a hierarchy of anxiety-producing situations coupled
with the use of relaxation techniques. The individual, while in a
deeply relaxed state, is asked to imagine the least anxiety producing
situation in the hierarchy. The principle is that an individual cannot
experience these contradictory emotions (relaxation and anxiety)

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 simultaneously. The individual then proceeds up the hierarchy until
the relaxation responses are reinforced to the anxiety-invoking
stimulus. This is called counter-conditioning.

3. Flooding: Sometimes referred to as in vivo exposure therapy, is

a form of behavior therapy and desensitization—or exposure
therapy. It is used to treat phobia and anxiety disorders including
post-traumatic stress disorder. It works by exposing the patient to
their painful memories. Flooding was invented by psychologist
Thomas Stampfl in 1967.

In flooding, the client experiences the CS (in this case, cats) without
the US that originally elicited fear. The therapist might, for example,
force the client to hold a cat. After having experienced the cat holding
as harmless, the person learns that cats need not be avoided.

4. Implosion: It works on the same principle as flooding, but here the

client only imagines the fearful situation. In fact, in implosion,
the client is asked to imagine the anxiety- producing situation. So, by
intensely concentrating on the fearful stimulus in a way that nothing
fearful can happen, the person is able to confront the phobia.

5. Advertising: Companies’ use various models for this purpose e.g.

cartoon characters are used in commercials of those products which
are associated with kids. In the same way, female models are used in
those ads in which products are associated with females or
housework. Similarly sports personalities for products associated with
men.

C. TRIAL AND ERROR LEARNING

 Edward Lee Thorndike
first stated elements of the
theory of learning in 1913.

 According to Edward,
learning takes place by trial

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 and error- also called as “learning by selection of successful
variant”.

 Trial and error is a problem solving method in which multiple

attempts are made to reach a solution

Thorndike’s Laws of Learning

1. Law of readiness

Thorndike’s Law of Readiness refers to a preparatory set on the part of

the organism to learn. It points out that one learns only when he is
physically and mentally ready for it.

2. Law of exercise

the law of exercise says we learn by doing and forget by not doing. the
more we repeat a thing the more stronger we learn.

1. Law of effect

The law of effect, refers to the strengthening or weakening of a

connection between a stimulus and a response as a result of the
consequences of the response.
if a response is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the strength of the
connection is increased. If a response is followed by an annoying state of
affairs, the strength of the connection is decreased

D. OPERANT CONDITIONING
 B. F Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is built on the ideas of
Edward Thorndike.
 Operant/ Instrumental conditioning is the learning of voluntary
behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant
consequences to responses.

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 Process through which organisms learn to repeat behaviors that yield
positive outcomes or permits them to avoid or escape from negative
outcomes.
 Primary/ Innate reinforcers: Reinforcers that have innate
reinforcing qualities. These kinds of reinforcers are not learned.
Example- Water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, pleasure and touch.
 Secondary/ conditioned reinforcers: Secondary reinforces gain
value by association with primary reinforcers. For example, food is a
primary reinforcer, money buys food. Therefore, money, in this case,
is a secondary reinforce.

Operant chamber/ Skinner box experiment

 Skinner learned that behaviors become habitual when desired

rewards are guaranteed (reinforcement).
Step 1: A hungry rat is placed in the observation chamber.
Step 2: The rat roams around until accidentally knocking the lever.
Step 3: The rat receives a food pellet.
Step 4: the rat repeats the action several times to receive food.
 The Skinner box was designed to teach rats how to push a lever. This
behavior is not natural to rats, so operant conditioning with positive
and negative reinforcement were performed in order to teach the
behavior.
 Positive reinforcement: The rat was awarded with food when he
pressed the lever.
 Negative reinforcement: The rat was able to turn off electric
shocks produced by the floor by pressing the lever.

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 I. Reinforcement and punishment

 Reinforcement is any event or stimulus, that when following a

response, increases the probability that the response will occur again

a. Positive reinforcement is the reinforcement of a response

by the addition of pleasant stimulus to enhance a behavior.
Example: A father gives his daughter candy (reinforcing
stimulus) for cleaning up toys (behavior).

b. Negative reinforcement is the reinforcement of a

response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an
unpleasant stimulus OR Removing an unpleasant behavior to
enhance a behavior. Example: studying (response) to avoid
getting a bad grade.

 Punishment is any event or object that, when following a response,

makes that response less likely to happen again

a) Positive punishment is the Addition of an unpleasant

stimulus to suppress a behavior. Example: Beating/scolding
a student for bad behavior.
b) Negative punishment is the removal of a pleasant
stimulus to suppress a behavior/ weakening a response.
Example: Parents do not allow children to watch TV.

II. Shaping/ Differential reinforcement

 Shaping is the reinforcement of simple steps in behavior through

successive approximations that lead to a desired, more complex
behavior

 A technique in which close and closer approximations to desired

behaviors are reinforced.

 An example of shaping is when a baby or a toddler learns to walk.

They are reinforced for crawling, then standing, then taking one step,
then taking a few steps, and finally for walking.

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III. Chaining

 Chaining is a procedure used to establish a complex sequence or chain

of behaviors. The final response in the chain are reinforced and
reward.

 Chaining is the processes of adding small behaviors together to create

a larger, more complex and sophisticated behavior.
 Shaping involves teaching new behaviors in steps. An individual
shapes their behaviors when they are rewarded for closely or perfectly
mastering a step in the behaviors modification. Chaining is the links
that are made from one step to another in the behavior modification.
In chaining, we take a multi-step task and break it down into a
sequence of smaller tasks.

I. Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement are rules determining when and how

reinforcements will be delivered.

a) Continuous reinforcement schedule

 A schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of a particular
behavior is reinforced.
 Giving a child a chocolate every day after he finishes his math
homework.

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 b) Fixed interval schedule
Fixed-Interval Schedule is a schedule of reinforcement in which a
specific interval of time must elapse before a response will
yield reinforcement. A weekly paycheck is a good example of a
fixed-interval schedule.

c) Variable interval schedule

A schedule of reinforcement in which a variable amount of
time must elapse before a response will yield reinforcement.
Example: office Inspections occur at random times.

d) Fixed ratio schedule

A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs only after a

fixed number of responses have been emitted. Example: A child
being given a candy for every 3 pages of a book they read.

e) Variable ratio schedule

A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is delivered after a

variable number of responses have been emitted. Example: A child
being given a candy for every 3-10 pages of a book they read. i.e., they are
given a candy after reading 5 pages, then 3 pages, then 7 pages, then 8
pages, etc.

E. APPLICATION OF OPERANT CONDITIONING

Contingency management
Contingency management (CM) is the application of the three-term
contingency (or operant conditioning), which uses stimulus control and
consequences to change behavior.

CM originally derived from the science of applied behavior analysis

(ABA), but it is sometimes implemented from a cognitive-behavior
therapy (CBT) framework as well.

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Incentive-based contingency management is well-established when used
as a clinical behavior analysis (CBA) treatment for substance abuse,
which entails that patients' earn money (vouchers) or other incentives
(i.e., prizes) as a reward to reinforce drug abstinence (and, less often,
punishment if they fail to adhere to program rules and regulations or
their treatment plan).

Another popular approach based on CM for alcoholism is the community

reinforcement approach and family training (CRAFT) model, which uses
self-management and shaping techniques.

Token economy

 A token economy is a system of behavior modification based on the

systematic positive reinforcement of target behavior.
 Example: Patients in hospital settings earn tokens they can exchange
for various rewards by engaging in desirable forms of behavior.
 A token economy rewards good behavior with tokens that can be
exchanged for something desired. A token can be a chip, coin, star,
sticker, or something that can be exchanged for what the student
wants to buy.

Timeout procedure

 Time-out is another popular technique used in behavior modification

with children. It operates on the principle of negative punishment.
When a person demonstrates an undesirable behavior, he/she is
removed from the desirable activity at hand so the behavior isn’t
encouraged.
 Example: A child might be playing on the playground with friends and
push another child; the child who misbehaved would then be
removed from the activity for a short period of time.

Behavioral/ Contingency contract

 It consists of drawing up an agreement or contract between several
parties. It can be between one or more tutors (parents, teachers, etc.),
and the person in need of discipline. This agreement reflects the

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 behaviors that we expect of them, and if they’re honored, they’ll
obtain some positive reinforcement.

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

 Modern term for a form of functional analysis and behavior

modification that uses a variety of behavioral techniques to mold a
desired behavior or response.

Premack principle

 The Premack principle by David Premack is a theory of reinforcement

that states that a less desired behavior can be reinforced by the
opportunity to engage in a more desired behavior.
 Example: A parent requiring a child to clean his or her room before he
or she can watch television. In this case, television, an activity that
probably does not require reinforcement, is used as a reinforcer for
cleaning the room, which in the context of this example the child
would not do without reinforcement.

F. COGNITIVE LEARNING
Cognitive learning involves learning a relationship between two stimuli
and thus is also called S‐S learning.

Cognitive map

• The term cognitive map was coined by Tolman.

• It is defined as an internal representation (or image) of external
environmental feature or landmark. He thought that individuals
acquire large numbers of cues (i.e. signals) from the environment and
could use these to build a mental image of an environment (i.e. a
cognitive map).
• By using this internal representation of a physical space they could get
to the goal by knowing where it is in a complex of environmental
features

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Latent Learning

• Latent learning is a type of learning which is not apparent in the

learner's behavior at the time of learning, but which manifests later
when a suitable motivation and circumstances appear. i.e., new
behavior is learned but not demonstrated until reinforcement is
provided for developing it.
• Latent learning is not readily apparent to the researcher because it is
not shown behaviorally until there is sufficient motivation.
• The idea of latent learning was not original to Edward C. Tolman, but
he developed it further

Sign learning

• Tolman's theorizing has been called purposive behaviorism and is

often considered the bridge between behaviorism and cognitive
theory.
• According to Tolman's theory of sign learning, an organism learns by
pursuing signs to a goal, i.e., learning is acquired through meaningful
behavior. i.e., learning is about finding a meaning instead of
reproducing behaviors.

Maze experiment

In the experiments, Tolman placed three groups of hungry

rats in a maze.

 Group 1: Always received a food reward at the end of

the maze, so the payoff for learning the maze was real
and immediate.
 Group 2: Never received any food reward, so there was
no incentive to learn to navigate the maze effectively.
 Group 3: Was like the second group for the first 10
days, but on the 11th day, food was now placed at the
end of the maze.

The results of Tolman’s experiments were as follows:

 The rats in the first group quickly learned to negotiate the maze.
 The rats of the second group seemed to wander aimlessly through it.

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  The rats in the third group, however, although they wandered
aimlessly for the first 10 days, quickly learned to navigate to the end
of the maze as soon as they received food on day 11. By the next day,
the rats in the third group had caught up in their learning to the rats
that had been rewarded from the beginning.
 It was clear to Tolman that the rats that had been allowed to
experience the maze, even without any reinforcement, had
nevertheless learned something, and Tolman called this latent
learning. They developed a cognitive map: a mental picture of the
layout of the maze.

G. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

• Observational learning is the learning of new behavior through

watching the actions of a model (someone else who is doing that
behavior).
• Sometimes that behavior is desirable, and sometimes it is not. For
example, a child watches their mother eat dinner with a fork. They
observe the behavior and quickly learn how to use a fork themselves.
Observational learning may become undesireable when a child may
learn to swear, smack, smoke, and deem other inappropriate behavior
acceptable through poor modeling.
• This process is also known as modelling and has been investigated
extensively by Albert Bandura.
• Explains why physical punishment tend to increase aggressive
behavior.

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• By observing a model (someone who serves as an example), a person
may:
a) learn new responses;
b) learn to carry out or avoid previously learned responses
(depending on what happens to the model for doing the same
thing);
c) learn a general rule that can be applied to various situations.

Basic Processes

Bandura has identified four key processes that are crucial in

observational learning. The first two—attention and retention—
highlight the importance of cognition in this type of learning.

Attention: To learn through observation, you must pay attention to

another person’s behavior and its consequences.

Retention: You may not have occasion to use an observed response

for weeks, months, or even years. Hence, you must store a mental
representation of what you have witnessed in your memory.

Reproduction: Enacting a modeled response depends on your

ability to reproduce the response by converting your stored mental
images into overt behavior. This may not be easy for some responses.
For example, most people cannot execute a breathtaking windmill
dunk after watching Kobe Bryant do it in a basketball game.

Motivation: Finally, you are unlikely to reproduce an observed

response unless you are motivation to do so. Your motivation depends
on whether you encounter a situation in which you believe that the
response is likely to pay off for you.

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Bobo-doll experiment

Bandura’s classic Bobo Doll experiment showed that children would

mimic violent behaviors, simply by observing others.

In the experiment, children were shown a video where a model would act
aggressively toward an inflatable doll – hitting, punching, kicking, and
verbally assaulting the doll. There were three different endings:

1. The model was punished for their behavior

2. The model was rewarded for their behavior
3. There were no consequences

After watching the model, children were given a Bobo doll, identical to
that in the video. Their behaviors were observed.

Researchers found the following:

 Children were more likely to mimic violent behaviors when they
observed the model receiving a reward, or when no consequences
occurred.
 Children that observed the model being punished for violence
showed less actual violence toward the doll.

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