The Major Goals of Psychology

The science of psychology is complete only with the study of

behaviour, mental processes, and organism’s behaviour toward their
environment. People’s behaviour is studied through scientific methods.
Psychology, as science has basically the following main aims or goals:
understand, predict, describe, influence, and control behaviour, and
improve the quality of life.
Psychology—the scientific study of the mind and behaviour—has four
main goals:
1. to describe behaviour
2. to explain behaviour
3. to predict behaviour
4. to change behaviour

Describing Behaviour
 Simply describing the
behaviour of humans and other animals helps psychologists
understand the motivations behind it. Such descriptions also serve
as behavioral benchmarks that help psychologists gauge what is
considered normal and abnormal.
 Researchers might start by observing human behaviour and then
describing a problem. By understanding what is happening,
psychologists can then work on learning more about why the
behaviour happens and even how to change it.
Explaining Behaviour
 Explaining behaviour is probably what comes to mind for most
people when they think about the goals of psychology. Why do
people do the things they do? What factors contribute to
development, personality, social behaviour, and mental health
problems?
Predicting Behaviour
  Not surprisingly, another primary goal of psychology is to predict
how we think and act. Once psychologists understand what
happens and why, they can formulate predictions about when,
why, and how it might happen again.
 Successfully predicting behaviour is also one of the best ways to
know if we understand the underlying causes of our actions.
Changing Behaviour
 Finally, and perhaps most importantly, psychology strives to
change, influence, and/or control behaviour to make constructive,
lasting changes in people's lives.
 From treating mental illness to enhancing human well-being,
changing human behaviour is a major focus of psychology.
Variable
 A variable is something that can be changed or altered, such as a
characteristic or value. Variables are generally used in
psychology experiments to determine if changes to one thing
result in changes to another.
 Variables play a critical role in the psychological research
process. By systematically changing some variables in an
experiment and measuring what happens as a result, researchers
can learn more about cause-and-effect relationships.
 Psychological
Enquiry

Observational Experimental Correlational Psychological

Case Study
Method Method Research Testing

Observational Method
 In an observational study, no intervention takes place. While
participants answer detailed questions about the lifestyle habit
being investigated, or measurements are taken, no adjustment of
the habit itself is suggested by the researchers. During the study
period, participants are revisited and surveyed again to chart the
habits being studied, and their effects.
Experimental Method
 The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to
determine if this causes changes in another variable. This method
relies on controlled research methods and random assignment of
study subjects to test a hypothesis.
 When using the experimental method, researchers first identify
and define key variables. Then they formulate a hypothesis,
manipulate the variables, and collect data on the results.
Unrelated or irrelevant variables are carefully controlled to
minimize the potential impact on the experiment outcome.
Correlational Method
  A correlational study is a type of research design that looks at the
relationships between two or more variables. Correlational studies
are non-experimental, which means that the experimenter does
not manipulate or control any of the variables.
 A correlation refers to a relationship between two variables.
Correlations can be strong or weak and positive or negative.
Sometimes, there is no correlation.
There are three possible outcomes of a correlation study: a positive
correlation, a negative correlation, or no correlation. Researchers can
present the results using a numerical value called the correlation
coefficient.
1. Positive correlations: Both variables increase or decrease at the
same time. A correlation coefficient close to +1.00 indicates a
strong positive correlation.
2. Negative correlations: As the amount of one variable increases,
the other decreases (and vice versa). A correlation coefficient
close to -1.00 indicates a strong negative correlation.
3. No correlation: There is no relationship between the two
variables. A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates no correlation.
Survey
 A survey is a data collection tool used to gather information about
individuals. Surveys are commonly used in psychology research
to collect self-report data from study participants. A survey may
focus on factual information about individuals, or it might aim to
obtain the opinions of the survey takers.
I. Qualitative research involves collecting and evaluating non-
numerical data to understand concepts or subjective opinions.
II. Quantitative research involves collecting and evaluating
numerical data.
Interview
 An interview is a conversation between a candidate and company
professionals to assess if the candidate is the right fit. As an
interviewer, this part of the recruitment process allows you to find
 out more about the candidate, such as their personality and
background. Learning about the pros and cons may allow you to
conduct the interview well and understand challenges to be aware
of during the interview. In this article, we discuss the advantages
and disadvantages of interviews, including exploring the five pros
and five cons and providing interviewing tips that may allow you
to experience more successful interviews.
Questionnaire
 A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of
questions or other types of prompts that aims to collect
information from a respondent. A research questionnaire is
typically a mix of close-ended questions and open-ended
questions.
 Open-ended, long-form questions offer the respondent the ability
to elaborate on their thoughts. Research questionnaires were
developed in 1838 by the Statistical Society of London.
Psychological Testing
 Psychological testing is the basis for mental health treatment.
These tools are often used to measure and observe a person’s
behaviours, emotions, and thoughts.
 Tests are performed by a psychologist who will evaluate the
results to determine the cause, severity, and duration of your
symptoms. This will guide them in creating a treatment plan that
meets your needs.
Tests can either be objective or projective:
1. Objective testing involves answering questions with set
responses like yes/no or true/false.
2. Projective testing evaluates responses to ambiguous stimuli in
the hopes of uncovering hidden emotions and internal conflicts.
 Both provide valuable insight into your symptoms and help
psychologists see your overall level of functioning and distress.
Psychological tests can include formal, or “norm-referenced,”
tests to measure your ability to comprehend different concepts.
 They can come in the form of checklists and questionnaires. Each
test measure ensures the reliability, validity, and objectivity
necessary to avoid bias in scoring or interpreting your results.

Human Development
What Are the Eight Stages of Human Development?

Stage 1 — Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust

In the first stage of human development, infants learn to trust
based on how well their caregivers meet their basic needs and
respond when they cry. If an infant cries out to be fed, the parent
can either meet this need by feeding and comforting the infant or
not meet this need by ignoring the infant. When their needs are
met, infants learn that relying on others is safe; when their needs
go unmet, infants grow up to be less trusting.
Stage 3 — Preschool Years: Initiative vs. Guilt
During the preschool years, children learn to assert themselves and
speak up when they need something. Some children may state that
they’re sad because a friend stole their toy. If this assertiveness is
greeted with a positive reaction, they learn that taking initiative is
helpful behavior. However, if they’re made to feel guilty or ashamed
for their assertiveness, they may grow up to be timid and less likely
to take the lead.

Stage 4 — Early School Years: Industry vs. Inferiority

When children begin school, they start to compare themselves
with peers. If children feel they’re accomplished in relation to
peers, they develop strong self-esteem. If, however, they notice
that other children have met milestones that they haven’t, they
Stagestruggle
may 2 — Toddlerhood: Autonomy
with self-esteem. vs. Shamea and
For example, first Doubt
grader may
In addition
notice to autonomy
a consistently versus
worse shame and doubt,
performance anothertests
on spelling waywhen
to
think of thewith
compared second stageIfisthis
peers. independence
becomes a versus dependence.
pattern, it can lead to
Like in the first stage, toddlers go through this stage responding to
feelings of inferiority.
their caregivers. If caregivers encourage them to be independent
and explore the world on their own, toddlers will grow up with a
sense of self-efficacy. If the caregivers hover excessively or
encourage dependence, these toddlers grow up with less
confidence in their abilities.
For example, if a toddler wants to walk without assistance in a
Stage 5—
safe area, theAdolescence:
caregiver should Identity vs. Role
encourage Confusion
this autonomy by
The adolescent
allowing stage is where
the independent theIfterm
behavior. “identityinsists
the caregiver crisis”on
originated, and for good
holding the toddler’s hand reason. Adolescence
even when is all about
it’s not necessary, this
developing
attention canalead
sense of self.later
to doubt Adolescents
in life. who can clearly
identify who they are grow up with stronger goals and self-
knowledge than teenagers who struggle to break free of their
parents’ or friends’ influences. Adolescents who still deeply
depend on their parents for social interaction and guidance
may experience more role confusion than teenagers who
pursue their own interests.
Stage 6 — Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation
In young adulthood, which begins roughly at age 20, people
begin to solidify their lifelong bonds; many people enter
committed relationships or marriages, while others form
lifelong friendships. People who can create and maintain
these relationships reap the emotional benefits, while those
who struggle to maintain relationships may suffer from
isolation. A young adult who develops strong friendships in
college may feel more intimacy than one who struggles to
form and maintain close friendships.

Stage 7 — Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs.

Stagnation
In middle adulthood, people tend to struggle with their
contributions to society. They may be busy raising children
or pursuing careers. Those who feel that they’re contributing
experience generativity, which is the sense of leaving a
legacy. On the other hand, those who don’t feel that their
work or lives matter may experience feelings of stagnation.
For example, a middle-aged adult who’s raising a family and
working in a career that presumably helps people may feel
more fulfilled than an adult who’s working at a day job that
feels meaningless.

Stage 8 — Late Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair

As adults reach the end of life, they look back on their lives
and reflect. Adults who feel fulfilled by their lives, either
through a successful family or a meaningful career, reach ego
integrity, in which they can face aging and dying with peace.
If older adults don’t feel that they’ve lived a good life, they
risk falling into despair.
Other Theories of Human Development
Although widely used, Erikson’s psychosocial development theory has
been critiqued for focusing too much on childhood. Critics claim that
his emphasis makes the model less representative of the growth that
people experienced in adulthood. Erikson’s model of the stages of
human development is only one theory addressing growth and change
throughout life, as many other psychologists have researched their own
theories of human development, including the following:

Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget developed the theory of cognitive development. Piaget’s
theory is widely used in education programs to prepare teachers to
instruct students in developmentally appropriate ways. The theory is
based on four stages:

1) Sensorimotor — In the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years old),

children learn object permanence, which is the understanding that
people and objects still exist even when they’re out of view.
2) Preoperational — In the preoperational stage (2-7 years old),
children develop symbolic thought, which is when they begin to
progress from concrete to abstract thinking. Children in this stage
often have imaginary friends.
3) Concrete operational — In the concrete operational stage (7-11
years old), children solidify their abstract thinking and begin to
understand cause and effect and logical implications of actions.
4) Formal operational — In the formal operational stage
(adolescence to adulthood), humans plan for the future, think
hypothetically, and assume adult responsibilities.

Why Do We Study Human Growth and Development?

The study of human growth and development offers a wealth of value
for personal and professional growth and understanding. Many reasons
exist for why we study human growth and development.

Common benefits include the following:

 To gain a better understanding of one’s own life experiences.

This can help people personally reach an understanding of what
childhood events shaped their adulthood.
 To gain knowledge of how social context impacts development.
This knowledge can be invaluable for professionals like teachers
as they gain a deeper understanding of their students.
 To help others understand and contextualize the ups and downs of
life. This helps therapists and psychologists better aid their clients
in self-discovery.
 To understand how societal change can support growth and
development. This understanding helps decision-makers in
schools change the educational culture for the better.
 To become a more effective research, teacher, or leader in many
different industries. Understanding human development deeply
and in context has many professional benefits that can lead to
greater insight.
 To support the physical and mental health of individuals
throughout their life span. Professionals like doctors, nurses, and
therapists must understand human growth and development to
better support their clients.
 Students may choose to study human growth and development
because of its array of applications across many professional
fields. For example, students who want to become elementary
school teachers may take courses on the stages of human
development to understand cognitive development and how
children’s brains grow and change.
Human development is a wide-reaching and ever-changing discipline.
A knowledge of human development can be invaluable to people
personally as they continue to learn and grow throughout their lives
and professionally as they learn to apply what they’ve learned to their
careers.

Adolescent Egocentrism
From early to late adolescence, a person’s thinking is typically
affected by a concept known as adolescent egocentrism. Three main
features of adolescent egocentrism involve:

 Self-absorption, which means that their focus is almost entirely

on themselves.
 Personal fable, which means they see themselves as unique and
special.
 The imaginary audience, means they think that others are
focused on them, noting everything they say and do.
Decision-Making And Impulse Control
After the rapid growth and development that occurs during childhood,
an adolescent’s brain is approximately the size of an adults. However,
critical areas of it still need nourishment and time to fully develop.
This process, known as remodelling, takes place throughout the entire
brain and occurs from the back of the brain forward. During
remodelling, unused neural connections are trimmed away as other
often-used pathways are preserved and grow more efficient—
especially those related to controlling behaviours and emotions and
calculating risk and reward.
A dolescents are more likely to:
 Be impulsive.
 Misunderstand emotions and social cues.
 Get into accidents or physical fights.
 Take risks or make dangerous choices.