UNIT ONE

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
1. What is Psychology?
Psychology was first defined as the study of soul and then as the study of mind
in the philosophical period. It was defined as the study of consciousness in the
structural period and it is defined as study of behavior and mental processes at this
modern time.
2. Define the term behavior?
The term behavior used in psychology is very broad which includes covert
(implicit) overt behavior ( physical). It also includes conscious behavior,
subconscious behavior and unconscious behaviour. Moreover it also includes motor
behaviour, affective behavior and mental behavior. Finally it also includes human
behavior and animal behaviour.
3. What are the goals of the psychology?
The general goal of psychology is to understand the basic processes and
structures underlying human behavior as a basis for managing people in an
organizational setting. The specific goals of Psychology are as follows :
i. To. study the behaviour and provide feedback.
ii. To enable thinking and problem solving ability.
iii. To help in the adjustment with the new situation.
iv. To improve personality upon individual.
v. To enhance intelligence and to help in the memory to stress
management and to comfort our life.
4. What are branches or field of Psychology?
The branches of psychology are as follows.
1. General Branches (branches of pure psychology)
i. General Psychology.
ii. Abnormal Psychology.
iii. Social Psychology
iv. Experimental Psychology

v. Para- Psychology
vi. Geo- Psychology
vii. Applied Branches
 i) Educational Psychology
ii) Development Psychology
iii) Clinical Psychology
iv) Industrial Psychology
v) Legal Psychology
vi) Military Psychology
vii) Political Psychology
Nature of Psychology
Psychology is popularly believed as an empirical science as it believes
on the study of objectively observable and measurable behavior. Psychology is a part
of philosophy. It has been understood by different people in different ways. There are
some misconceptions about psychology in society.
1. Psychology is subjective
2. It believes in superstition, valve, norms, tradition, system etc.
3. It is taught for mentally ill people.
4. It largely depends on what other people say.
5. It believes more on person idea, believe and feeling.
All the above given misconceptions are the false assumptions about
psychology. Psychology is actually different from what people think. it is rather
scientific, empirical and objective discipline because of following reasons:
1. It has well organized theory introduced on the bases of systematic
psychology, principle and laws.
2. It believes what we see but not what other say.
3. It has scientific spirit i.e. It does not accept anything for granted, it
always raises question like why, how, against to facts.
4. It believes on different scientific principles like of simplicity,
comprehensiveness, economy, objectify etc.
The methods and techniques employed in study of behavior in psychology are
quiet scientific as it follows the steps like observation of behavior, formulation of
hypothesis, analysis of collected data and verification of theory etc are the procedures.
The only method used in the study of behaviour in psychology is observation but the
way we observe the reality is different .It may be different from one situation to
another situation and from one psychologist to another psychology.
History of Psychology
 History of psychology refers to development that took place from the
ancient period to post modern in psychology. As psychology is a independent
discipline. It has ell established historical development which can be discussed under
different headings
1. Pre-Scientific Period (Ancient Period, Traditional Period)
Pre-scientific period begins with the Greek and latin contributions to the
middle of the 19th century. Aristotle, Plato, socrates, were the great philoshopers who
used their philosophiral ideas and defined psychology as the study of soul.
Psychology was the part of philosophy during this period. In 1937 Decanter Describes
animal spinets and maintained that animal behavior and human behavior can be
compare in 1690, Johnhock introduces the idea of tabular as a (blank sheet of paper).
All to him every child is born with blank sheet of paper in the mind and that paper is
imprinted with what he/she hears and see in the external world .In 1807, Josef Gall
Proposed phrenology and defined psychology as the study of mind.
2. The scientific period
It begins from middle of the 19th century and ends with the beginning of 21th
century. This period can be discussed with the help of following schools of thought.
a. Structuralism: In 1879, Wilhelm want inaugurated the first
psychology laboratory in Germany and emphasized on the study of consciousness
through introspection. He is known as the father of experimental psychology because
he begun experiments for the study consciousness.
b. Functionalism: In 1895 William James, considered the functions of
mind more important than anything else. He further emphasized habit showing
nothing but functions of the nervous system are very important in psychology.
c. Behaviorism: It is proposed by J.B. Watson and develop by even
Pavlov, B.F. Skinner and Thorndike in the beginning 21st century, in 1904 Evan
Pavlov introduced classical conditioning theory.
d. Psychoanalysis: Psychology Sigmund Freud introduced concept of
psycho analysis in the 21st century and emphasized role of sexual behavior in the
development of human behavior.
3) Recent trends
The present world of psychology is dominated by modern trends
involving in so many schools of thought such as behaviorism, humanistic,
transpersonal theory and cognitive, Among all the theories of psychology, Humanistic
theory proposed by Abraham Maslow Carl Roger and cognitive theories developed by
Koholar, Bandura and others have become very much influential in psychology.
Common Sense of Psychology
 Common sense is a phrase that generally implies something everyone
knows.
 Common sense psychology is a myth, some examples of common
sense of psychology include:
 Working while in high school will help students build characters and
value more
 Children who read a lot are not very social or physically fit.
 People with low self esteem are more aggressive.
 The best way to treat juvenile delinquencies is to get tough with them.
 Most psychology is delusional.
 We know what will make us happy.
 The first in the class is most intelligent.
 Memory is always good but forgetting is always bad.
It is postulated that common sense may be categorized
 as a set of shared fundamental assumption.
 as a set of maxims or shares belief.
 as a shared way of thinking.

Perspectives of Psychology
Perspectives of psychology refer to the different ways of studying
behavior. Psychology has introduced the following perspectives:
1) Biological Perspective /Physical perspective
This perspective focuses on the relationship between body, behavior
and mental processes. It describes the role of nerve cells in different aspects of human
behavior. It focuses the influence of brain, spinal card,. in effective human behavior.
It is also concerned about heredity in the development of behaviors.
2. Behavioral Perspective:
Behavioral perspective of psychology is concerned with the study of behavior
on the basis of external, physical action of an individual. It largely believes on the role
of external environment in shaping one's behaviors. It is more concerned with the
relationship between stimulus and response. According to behavioral perspective the
relationship between stimuli and response is made very strong with the help of
reward.
3. Cognitive perspective:
It refers to the study of behavirour in term of thinking, reasoning, intellectual,
memory, insight etc. In other word, cognition is the mental proceses through which
we organize retrieve and develop our knowledge. the study of behavior on the bases
of how the information is obtained, retrieved, processed in order to develop
intelligence memory, thinking etc. is known as cognitive perspective.
4. Humanistic Perspective
This perspective studies the unique qualities of human behaviours in order to
study their behaviours. This approach maintains that all individuals naturally strive to
grab develop and be in control of their lives and behavior the unique Quality that
underlies the human determined behavior. Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow are the
central figures, of humanistic psychology. This psychology influences on free will
and determinism. It assumes that people have availability to make own choice about
their behavior rather than relying on others. Moreover, it stresses the role of
psychology in reaching people's life and helping them achieve self fulfillment.
5) Psychodynamic Perspective:
This perspective was introduced by Sigmund Freud. This perspective
maintains that unconscious motive, desires need to affect our behavior. This
perspective maintains the childhood experiences are more important for adult
behaviors. It means the behaviors of an individual that develop through hidden
internal subconscious and unconscious drives.
6. Socio-Cultural perspective:
According to this perspective, society and culture play very important role in
spacing behaviors. This psychology focuses on group relationship, social roles,
cultural relationship etc for the development one's behavior, friend circle, family,
social, school, organization, community will have their own values, norms, system,
traditions, religions, culture etc which affect the development of one' behaviors.
7. Evolutionary Perspective
It focuses on the theory of natural selection this perspective was
developed by Charles Darwin. It is related to scientific understand of evolution. It
considers psychology is an aspect of science it is based on the principle of the survival
for the fittest. According to this perspective of psychology, every individual develops
his behavior on the basis of natural selection and scientific discovery. The evaluation
of discoveries or the criteria are for the individual.
Similarities and differences between psychology and other
branches of social sciences
Sociology and Psychology
Sociology and psychology are closely related with each other. Both are
interrelated and interdependent. Psychology is concerned with the exploration of the
depth of man's mind and behaviors in society. It is said that psychology shows the
significant of the relationship between the organism (individual) and environment.
The aim of psychology is to arrive at the laws of mental life and behavior of human
beings. Sociology, on the other hand is the study of society it studies man's social
relationships. Psychology is the positive science of human experience and behaviors.
Thus, sociology studies society where as psychology is concerned with human
behaviors. Both are regarded as positive science, these two disciplines have a great
deal in common and are interrelated. It is difficult to understand the inter relations and
the activities of human beings without an adequate knowledge of human psychology
in some way many truth of psychology would remain unintelligible without a
comprehensive idea about social relationship, behavior and activities.
Psychology is concerned with the human mind whereas sociology is
concerned as a whole. The methods used by sociology and psychology are not
identical both discipline, therefore, differ from each other in respect of method. The
psychologist focuses his attention on the individual while the sociologist is per-
occupiced with individual is regarded as the unit of psychology and society is
regarded as the unit of sociology.
Psychology and Anthropology
Both anthropology and psychology are closely related. Psychology studies
mains behaviors in relation to the environment. Anthropology is also a comparative
and analytic study of human behavior and experiences. Both try to understand man in
the context of social behavior. In this way psychology and anthropology are
complementary to each other. Whereas on one side psychological knowledge helps an
anthropologist in understanding the root causes of human behavirous in different
cultures, on the other side anthropology in calculatiing the influence of cultural
environment of human behaviour.
By studding different primitive cultures anthropologist have shown how
human behavior differs in different cultural environments.
Psychology studies individual behavior in social environment where as social
anthropology studies groups of individuals. Psychology studies individual behaviours
in social environment where as anthropology studies not an individual but the whole
of the mankind. Both psychology and anthropology study and but with different
viewpoint. Whereas some methods of observation which are common in both of these
science, some methods of psychology like the introspection method, are not used in
anthropology but can be used in psychology.
3. Psychology and Economics
Psychology and economics one related to each other in the sense that
economics studies economic functions of men whereas psychology studies the human
behavior. Economics is the study of mankind in the business of life. It studies that
part of an individual which is closely connected and the use of materials request for
well being. On one hand, it is the study of wealthy and on the another hand, it is the
study of human behavior the economic condition of an individual affects human
behavior therefore, as economic theory is useful, psychology theory are useful for
economics we can say that economics and psychology are interrelated.
Psychology studies human behaviours whereas economy studies economic
function or business behaviour of an individual. The methods used in the study of
psychology and the method used in the study of economic are different. Economics is
concerned with economic problem and their activities like getting income, saving,
expenditure, demand etc whereas psychology is concerned only with behaviours
aspect like memory thinking, forgetting, learning etc.
Psychology and Political Science
Psychology and political science are intertwined in the sense that
psychological principles, rules and laws are used in developing and formulating of the
society and country. it also happens that the political system of a country and society
also affect the human behaviour. Physhological theory guides in the formulation of
rules and policy where political agenda, propaganda, law, acts act effectively formed
with the help psychology.
 Psychology studies the human behaviours in relation to society and context
whereas political science studies the political activities of human. Psychology is
concern with psychological trend whereas political science gives emphasis technical
political trend. Psychology takes of bottom up approach whereas political science take
top-down approach.
Scientific Method
According to Feldman, psychology follows a scientific method of
investigation which can be discussed in these four steps:

I. Identify question of Interest

Before we begun our study we need to identified the subject we want
to study. More over, we need to know, the other interest which we can explore
observing of behaviours phenomena reading the priors finding and using our
curiosity, creativity and insights.
II) . Formulative hypothesis
On the basis of information, we collected from 1st step we created
tentast theory or assumption known as hypothesis. This hypotheis may be justified or
falsified lates.
III) Carryout Research
In this step, we first define our topic then we slect the research method
to study the behaviours. Then we collected, the data and finally, we analyzed the data
make a theory.
IV) Communicate the findings
After, we develop the theory, we need spread our result or finding to
the consist public people. This con be done with the help of lecturs, presentation and
publication.

Psychological Research
1. Archival Research (Method)
It is one of the oldest method to study psychological behaviour. In this
method, behavior is studied with the help of existing data such as census records,
school records, newspaper clippings…etc. It is one of the inexpensive methods and
easiest methods of studying behaviour. It is perhaps the most comfortable way of
studying behaviour. However, it has certain problems. it can be unreliable because
available data may not be complete and the data available might not be correct.

2. Naturalistic Observation
In naturalistic observation method, the investagitor observes the behaviour, in
natural situation without making any changes, in this method researcher observers the
record. Everything is fine as it is in the situation. One of the advantages of
naturalistic observation methods is that the researcher gets an opportunity to collect
the information. What we get is real. One of the drawbacks or disadvantages of this
method is that the researcher may be unable to control the factor of his own interest
sometime researcher may be unable to draw the conclusion and sometimes may be
unable to get the natural situation.
3. Survey Research
It refers to research approach in which people chosen as sample to represent
the large population are asked a series of questions about their behaviour, thought
attitude. This research is based on sampling. Appropriate representative sampling will
be given good result to researcher. This research can be conducted with the help of
questionnaire, , interview, test or observation .
This research is very popular in social sciences. One of the advantages of this
type of research is the wide coverage. It is not very default to carry out the research
because the sample chosen will be made it economic and convenient. However, it is
very default to choose the appropriate sample the result derived from research may
not be exact to the reality due to some mistakes or problem in choosing the sample.
vi. The Case Study Research
Case study refers to in-depth intensive investigation of an individual or
small group of people. In case study research, the researcher of researcher might use
carefully designed set a questions for detail investigation of the case the case should
be special and somehow abnormal or extra ordinary one advantage of case study is
that the researchers get detail information and this case study result is more aulthetic.
However the subjective of research result it is sometime inpossible to make valid
generalization to large population.
v. Correlation Research
Correlational research studies behaviour or activities or events comparing
with other behaviour, activities and events. In this method, comparison or correlation
is established with the help of statistical tools while establishing co-relational the
result might be positive and negative.
This research method quiet complex and it is less used in psychology. The benefit of
using this research is the result is more objective and scientific.
vi. Experimental Research
Experimental research is considered most scientific and objective method of
studying behavior as it gives emphasis on performing. William Wundt first used
experimental method in psychology. Thus, he is known as the father of psychology.
The main objective of experimental method is to establish the cause and effect
relationship between different variables.
In experimental research, the psychologist carries out the result
dividing the group in two group for experimental group and control group for
experimental group the researchers does the treatment but the control group the
researcher does not do any treatment. After certain period of time, the result of
experimental group and control group is compared and cause and effect relationship is
established.
Different types of variables are used in experimental research. One of
them is independent variable. Independent variable refers to that variable that is
manipulated by the researcher. It means the researcher is trying to investigate the
independent variable. Dependent variable refers to that all which is measured and
inspected to charring as the result of changes due to manipulation of independent
variable.
Advantages
1. It is most scientific and most objective method.
2. Environment is completely artificial and control so the desired
behaviour can be developed.
3. It is very systematic method.
Disadvantages
1. Environment is artificial and un real.
2. It is very difficult to control all the factors of the environment.
 Unit -2
Importance of Biological Basis of Behaviour
Although there are a number of aspects of behavior to be considered in the
study of psychology, biological perspective occupies very important place in the
study of behavior because of the following reasons:
1 The study of biological basis of behaviour will help of us to know different
mental processes that an individual goes through.
2 The study of biological bases will help to know how our nervous system plays
the important role in controlling, regulating, developing human behavior
3 The study of biological bases will also help to about endrocine system. This
will enlighten us in the role of hormones to shape behaviour.
4 Biological bases of behaviours will help us to known the role of heredity in the
development of behaviours.
5) Biological bases of behaviours lead us to know the complex processes of the
mind like thinking, memory, intelligence so that we can control and
development our mental processes easily.

Nervous System
The system of neurons in the human body is known as Nervous system.
Neuron is the very basic unit of nervous system. The human body is composed of
different types of cells like bone cells, muscle cells and body cells. Each type of cells
consists of millions of tiny cells which form a single unit is known as nerve cell or
neuron. Most important duty of neuron is to carry electrical messages from one part of
the body to another part. A human body is said to have 100 to 200 billion of neurons,.
This neuron is the ultimate structure and functional unit of nervous system. All the
neurons are similar in structure but appear in different lengths, size and shape. The
neuron has different parts, a nucleus,a cell body, dendrites, myelin sheath axon and
terminal branches. Dendrites are tiny fibers extending out from the cell body. Their
role is to receive message through the electrical impulses from the sense organs and
adjacent neurons and carry them to the cell body. The message from the cell body
travels through the axon. The axon is surrounded by fatty covering known as myelin
sheath. The function of myelin sheath is to speed up the transmission of the message.
These neurons spread all over body. The structure of such neuron is shown in
the figures below :
1. Sensory neuron
Sensory neuron collects message from inside and outside the body and carry
them to the spinal cord and brain. These neurons help in the processes of sensation
and perception. These neurons are also called afferent neurons.
2. Motor Neurons
Motor Neurons carry message from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles
and the glands. These neurons are responsible for physical movement and activation
of glands. These neurons are also called efferent neurons.
3. Inter Neurons
Inter Neurons carry message or signals from one neuron to another neuron,
Their function is to carry signals in the form of memory and to add reflex and
automatic activation. They are also called association Neurons.

The division of Human Nervous System

Human Nervous system can be divided into different part or sub-part
which can be summarized in the following diagram.
 Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Brain Spinal cord Somatic Autonomic

Nervous Nervous
system system
Fore mid Hind
brain brain Brain
Sympathetic Para-sympathetic

Thal Hypot Cerebr

amus hesis inim

Nervous system is system of neuron in the human body. This nervous system
can be divided into two main parts
1. CNS= It is that part of the nervous system which lies within skull and spine.
Therefore the brain and spinal cord constitute CNS. This CNS can be divided into
two parts.
a. Brain : Brain is perhaps the most important and delicated part of human nervous
system. it is the control room of huge complicated telephone system of the body. It is
composed of three main divisions:.
i) Forebrain: It is at the top of the brain. It's important structure are the thalamus,
hypothalamus and cerebrum.
Thalamus: It is situated at the centre of forebrain. All sensory messages pass through
it to o the higher centre. Therefore, it is known as relay station. Another function of
thalamus is to exercise some control of sleep and alertness.
Hypothalamus : It lies below thalamus. It plays great role in emotion as well as
motivational behaviour. It also plays important role in body processes like eating,
drinking, temperature control, sex, sleeping, it also control over activities of pituatory
glands.
Cerebrum : It lies at the very top of the brain. It is the most of the complex and
largest part of the brain. It extends from eyebrow to middle part of the skull. It is
divided into two hemispheres to the left brain: and right brain. Left hemisphere is
connected to the left part of the body. A great mass of white matter is known as
corpus collasum that connects the two hemispheres . The cerebrum is covered by
thick layer of tightly packed neurons called cerebral context. It is come time called the
new brain. There are different areas in cerebral cortex responsible for different
functions . For eg: sensory projection area, motor projection area, association area etc
It has the ability to perform different function of stores sensory information
controlling body movement, coordinating all information regulating cognitive
functions such as reasoning problem solve the thinking.
ii. Mid Brain: It is the bridge that connected tore brain and hindbrain. It is
particulars contain with passing the message to the higher canters. One of the
important structures of the mid brain is reticular activating system (RAS). This system
helps to concentrate the our mind on the particular event and action. Moreover, it
decides which information should register or reject it also helps in sound sleep or in
study while listening to the radio.
iii) Hindbrain : It is situated behind and below forebrain. There are three important
structures of hindbrain.
Medula: It lies nearest the spinal cord. It control breathing and many automatic
activities it also regulates the highly complex process like digestion, respiration and
circulation which are necessary for the preservation of life.
Pons: It connects cerebrum at the top of the brain to top most reason of hindbrain
known as cerebellum. It helps in breathing and coordination different activities of
both sides of the brain. It also helps in transmitting impulses from cerebellum to the
higher brain centers.
Cerebellum : It is composed by two circular hemispheres. It helps in performing
bodily functions . It is responsible for body balance and the co-ordination of body
movement. It helps in typing , dancing, playing piano.

b) Spinal cord: It is that part of the center nervous system which lies within the
backbone .It is rope like structure which is made up of bundle of long fibres. The
inside part of the spinal card is grey in colour while outside covering is white in
colour. It is surrounded by series of bonds known as vertibra. It has two important
functions:
i) It works as a channel of communication from the brain to the body part and body
part to the brain. A small injury in the spinal cord stops passing the information from
and to the brain so that our body organ cannot work below from spinal cord injury.
ii) It works as a organ for effective reflective action. It means spinal cord helps to
maintain the body which balances in emergency situation and during body movement.
It means spinal card co-ordinate with the other part of brain to maintain body balance.
3) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The system of Neurons outside skull and spine is known as peripheral nervous
system. It means the system of neurons all over the body except the skull and spine is
peripheral nervous system. It has both motor system and sensory system. This system
can be studied by divided into two parts.
a) Somatic nervous system
This system has both motor and sensory system. In this system, sensory and motor
nerves are found running to and from the sense receptors, muscles and the surface of
the body. This system is more responsible for the body movement and physical
actions.
b) Autonomic Nervous System
This system only has motor system. This system consists of only the motor nerves
that work from the control nervous system to the heart glands and other internal
organs of the body to regulate the processes like digestion, respiration glands
functioning and emotion. This system is further divided into two types:
i) Sympathetic Nervous System
It is connected to the spinal cord on either side and carries messages to
the muscles and glands particularly in stress situation to prepare for an emergency
ready to act quickly. In such situation it is the sympathetic system that causes the
glands to start predicting hormones, as a result our blood pressure and heart rate is
suddenly increased, pupils are enlaced, digestion is stopped and several bodily
changes are market.
b)Parasympathetic system: This system is connected to the brain and lower part of
the spinal cord. It tends to be active when we are calm and relaxed. The massage
conveyed by the nerve fibers of this system direct the organ to do just opposite of
sympathetic system. As a result of this breathing slows down. Blood presser comes to
normal state, heart beat and pulse rate also come to the normal state, stomach,
muscles relax, digestion begins and the whole body comes to the normal state. Thus
Para sympathetic nervous system tries to create balance between emergency and
normal situation.
Influence of Nervous System on Human behaviour
1) Every movement of our behaviours to a great extent, is controlled by nervous
system.
2) Our learning is controlled by the nervous system.
3) Memory, forgetting, recalling, creativity etc are developing and monitored by
nervous system.
4) Bodily (Physical) development, intellectual development and emotional
development are affected by the nervous system)
5) Nervous system helps to coordination different internal as well as external
bodily function and activities.
6) Nervous system control is the activities of circulation of blood, digestion,
respiration and action of glands.
7) Cognitive co native and affective aspects of our behaviour are control and
develop directly and indirectly with the help of Nervous system.

Endocrine System
Beside the Nervous system the human body also has second major co-
ordination and controlling system for regulating internal machismo known as
Endocrine system. This system works quite automatically by means of Endocrine
gland. Endocrine glands are quite different from the duct glands like salivary glands
in the sense that Endocrine glands do not have duct. Endocrine glands therefore
directly pour the hormones into the blood stream directly and the blood carry
hormones to the body tissue. Therefore endocrine glands are called duct less glands.
The Endocrine glands lie in different parts of the body. There are all together and
different types of Endocrine glands.
The pineal Gland
This gland is situated within the brain. This gland produces different hormones which
is responsible for regulating biological functions like walking, sleeping, reproductive
like he appearance of secondary sex characteristics and the females menses cycle.
2) The pituitary Gland
This gland is situated within the base of the brain and is connected to
hypothalamus. It is also known as the master gland because it produces the largest
number of different hormones which affect the functioning of all other gland. This
gland produces the hormones like thyrotrophic, somato trophic hormone,
adrenocortico trophic hormone that help in different function of the human body.
3) The thyroid gland : It is located at the base of the neck. It produces one primary
hormone thyroxin which plays a leading role in controlling the process of oxidation of
food. It regulates the body's oxygen consumption and the rate of metabolism.
4) The Para thyroid Gland :
There are located in the back surface of the neck and they are in four in
number. They secrete a hormone known as para-thormone which control the level of
calcium and phosphate blood and tissues and help in counter balancing the adjusting
activities of thyroxin. These gland removed the toxic product from body and restore
the nervous system to maintain calm.
5) The thymus Gland
It is located within the chest. It scretes some important hormone which
helps us to regulate the lymphoid system and to develop immune reaction of the body
for fighting against the disease.
6) The adrenal Gland
These glands are two in number which surround the kidneys. Each gland has
two parts outer covering known as adrenal cortex. The adrenal medulla secrete
adrenalin and noradrenalin hormone which helps the body in its reaction into
emergency situation. The adrenal cortex produces 20 hormones which help in
different function of the body.
7) The pancreas Gland
It is situated between the stomach and the small intestine. It secretes
two hormones, insulin and glycogen which work against each other to maintain the
balanced to level of sugar in our blood. In case the balanced is disturbed by the under
secretion and over secretion of these two hormones it leads to excess or deficiency of
sugar in the blood. Excess of sugar cause diabetes which is the disease of pancreas
gland deficiency of sugar creates chronic fatigue.
8) The Gonads
These are the sex glands which are different in different sexes. The male
glands are called testes and female glands are called ovaries. There sex glands work
with the adrenal glands to control sexual development as well as sex behavirours.
 In the middle, the primary sex hormones produced by tastes are known as
androgens . The androgens are responsible for the development of male sex
characteristic like the growth of beard, moustache, maturity of genital, change in the
voice and so on in female, the primary sex hormones in bodies are known as estrogens
which are responsible for the development of female sex characteristics like the
development of breasts, maturity of genital and the reproductive apparatus. It is some
times found that males and female sex glands are found to secrete some amount of
estrogens and androgens in other word, both male and female produce, both sex
hormones that is why every male have some female characteristics and every female
have some male characteristics.
 Unit 3 :
Sensation and Perception
3.1 Sensation
Meaning of sensation
Sensation is a very important term which is used in psychology to refer
to the process of activating the sense organs by the help of physical energy. In other
words, the activation of sense organs by the help of physical energy is known
sensation. Sensation is possible with the sense organs. Our sense organs like nose
skin, to … etc get the information into the mind known as sensation.
Characteristics/Nature of sensation
1) Sensation is the process
2) Sensation activities sense organs
3) Sensation is the base foundation for perception in learning.
5 Sensation is the getaway to perception.
6 Without sensation there is no perception.
Importance of sensation
Sensation is very significant in the field of psychology in the study of
behaviour in the sense that, sensation is the window to the world. Our mind looks at
the world through sense organ in other words, sense organs provide raw materials and
we come to learn utilizing and organizing things. It is said that without sensation.
learning or percepting is very difficult. The sense organs helps use to make aware of
things and we cone to learn an experience things in different ways. Thus, sensation is
based or first term that leads us in the field of perception and learning.
 Types of sensation
There are 5 major types of sensation which are shown of following diagram.
Name of the category Sense involved Responsible organ
The visual senses Sense of vision Eyes
The auditory senses sense of hearing Ears
The chemical senses Sense of smell and taste Nose and tongue
temperature

The skin senses Sense of pressure pain and Skin

temperature
The body senses Kinesthetic and vestibular Body
sense

Sensory Threshold (Sensory Limitations)

The phenomenon of sensation is concerned with organism to become aware or
conscious some of other stimuli present in the internal as well as external. To do so
we need to know that our sense organs have limited capacity. They can experience the
stimuli as per their capacity. The minimum requirement of the stimulus to be detected
or discriminated in the environment by the sense organ is known as sensory threshold.
Such kind of sensory threshold is divided into two types:
i) Absolute threshold
It may be defined as the minimum intensity or physical energy of a stimulus
that many produce any sensation in a person in other words, the smallest intensity of a
stoned that must be present for the stimulus to be detected is known as absolute
threshold.
ii) Differentiate Threshold
It can be defined as the minimum intensity of a physical energy of a stimulus
that well discriminated between the stimuli is known as differentiate threshold. In
other words, the smallest lever of intensity of a stimuli that must be present for the
stimuli to be discriminated from the other stimuli is known as differentiate threshold
in a simply word, the noticing distinction between stimuli is called differentiate
threshold.
iii) Sensory Adaptation and Habituation
Sensory adaptation refers to the process of sensory adjustment to the stimuli in
the environment. In the other words, an adjustment in the sensory capacity after
prolonged exposure to unchanging stimuli is known sensory adoption for example, the
people around sugar factory are adopted to small of the factory and do not feel any
smell. if we experience such smell, we feel bad.
Sensory habituation on the other hand refers to the tradition of getting
sensory experience as normal way of the life. For example, for driver can easily
sleeping in the street so they have been habituated to make their sound sleep even in
the noisy environment. Similar, outrage skin, tongue, nose, etc have been habituated
to experiences certain stimuli in a normal way known as sensory habituation.
Types of Sensory Information
Sense of Vision
For human beings, it is most important sense because it suppliers with the
greatest amount of information about the external world the physical stimulus for
sense of vision is light. Light hat travels through space to make vision possible. The
sources of light are electrical light. sunlight lamp light etc we human beings utilize
such sources of light and see the things in the world.
Structure and Function of Eye
The rays of light enter the eye through the cornea. It is transparent covering
that protects our eyes. About 3% of eye of the right way are reflected of cornea
surface and the rest rays are past through the cornea and reached pupil of the eye. It is
the black surface or circle that lies in the center of the eye. In the other word, it is the
colored part of the eye. The quantity of light that enters the eye is control by the size
of pupil which is control the muscles. In dim light, the muscles of the Iris muscles
relax the more light goes into the eye. In bright light iris control and less light enters
the eye. Through the pupil light enters the length. It is the part of eye that focuses the
light wave of the retina. The retina contains the receptor eus that contains to light.
Near the middle of retina their lies a blind spot and there are no receptor in this blind
spot. If this blind spot increase it size our eyes cannot see the receptor cell of retina
are classified into two groups :i) Rods and ii) Cons : Cons are located at the central of
retina primacy in the area called fovea. the cons enables us to see colour. They mainly
operate in the daylight and are responsible for visual discrimination the rods respond
to low illumination and are mainly responsible for night vision and capable to see in
the dark. When the light fells at the rods and cons it activate the light receptor and set
up neural impulses of the rods and cons make the vision possible and we come to see
the thing in the world. ( see the figure of eyes in the book)
Auditory Sensation (Sense of Hearing)
Auditory sensation is the sensation produce by auditory stimulus. It is the
sensation of hearing something. The responsible organ for the sense of hearing is ear.
Sense of hearing is second important sensation that provides information to
the brain about what is heard in the environment. The physical stimulus responsible
for the sense of hearing is sound. Sound has three characteristics:
a. Loudness
b. Tone
c. Pitch
The higher the pitch, the louder the tone and higher the sensation. The sound wave
travels in the air. During their travel, they create vibrations which can be measured in
frequency and amplitude. Frequency refers to the numbers of vibration that sound
wave create in air similarly, amplitude refers to thinkness of these vibration the longer
the vibration the higher the vibration.
Structure of Ear
Ear is the responsible organ for the sense of hearing. Our Ear is composed of
three main components :
i. Outer ear
ii. Middle ear
iii. Inner ear
Outer ear : When the molecules from an object are vibrated sound waves are
produced the sound wave travel to the ear through medium of air. The external part
of ear which is also called Pinna collects these sound waves and hearing process
begins. The most important function of this Pinna is to receive the sound waves from
the environment and send or focused into the mid ear.
Middle ear: There are three important tiny bones in the middle ear. they are:
 Hammer (Malleus)
 Anvil (incus)
 Stirrup (Stapes)
The vibration of these three bones amplifies. The stirrup is the last bones chain which
causes a membrane covering the opering of the inner ear to vibrate.
Inner ear : The inner ear consists the cocblea and basilar membrane cochlea is the
filled up with fluid. When the ovel window vibrates it causes the flute in the cochea to
vibrate. This fluid surrounds of membrane running through the middle of the cochlea
called basilar. The cochlea is part of inner ear that transfers for sound wave into nerve
impulses that travel to the brain. The basilar membrane is the statues which is
covered with hair cell. It is a vibrating structure that runs through the center of the
cochlea. The nerves send the message in the brain through such hair cells. The
thalamus and auditory area in the brain interoperate the sounds waves and we came to
hear the sound the structure of ear is follow:
3) Chemical Senses
Sensation of smell and taste are called the chemical senses because both are
said to be activated by chemical stimuli.
a. Senses of taste
The receptor cells for the sense of taste like inside the taste bud which are
located in the term. These are about the 10000 taste buds on the tip, sides and back of
the tongue. Each of the taste buds contain about 20 taste cells.These taste cell has
taste pour that receives the chemical message of the taste of the food we eat.
b) Senses of Smell
Nose is the responsible organ for the senses of smell. The receptor cells for
the sense of smell sensation are situated in the nasal cavity in the small cell packed
area known as olfactory epithelium. It is only about half of the size of postage stamp.
It is packed nearly 6 lakhs receptor cells known as olfactory cells. These cells have a
lot of olfactory hair which is stimulated by molecules of substances that come in
through the nose.
4) Skin Senses
Skin sense include there important senses: Senses of touch or pressure and
temperature .Senses of touch or pressure is helpful in feeling the sensation of touch or
pressure on our body. The receptors consider in the fingers tips, lips and others ares
capale of spatial discrimination of pressure.
b) Senses of temperature
It helps us in feeling the sensation of warmth and cold as well as indetecting
the difference between the two temperature.

c) Senses of Pain
 The sense of pain help us in realizing the sensation. The receptor in the skin
for pain lie mainly in the free nerue ending. However the receptor for pain lie not only
in skin but also in the muscles and body organ.
5) The body senses:
The body senses include the kinesthetic and vestibular sense. Although, there
are not only specific organ responsible for the body sense, total interracl body
mechanism specially the brain and nerves a major role for these sense. These senses
helps us to maintain and balance our body at the time when we stand, work, run,
stumble etc.
a) Kinesthetic Sense
This sense plays the major role in relaying information about the position and
the movement of the part of our body without actually observing or sensing them
through sense of vision. The receptors lies on the body join of the legs and bands.
b) Vestibular Sense
The vestibular sense is related to maintaining the balance durian the
movement and changes in the orientation of the health it sues more than just passing
the information about the body position. it help use to run without falling to work on
narrow pole or wall etc. The receptor for the vestibular sense i.e. on the inner ear.
Perception
Perception can be defined as the first event in the chain which lead from the
stimuli to action. In other words, perception is organization process by which we
interpret sensory input. It can also be defined as the process in the which involved in
creating meaning out of the sensory input. It is an individual awareness of the even
stimulated action.
Characteristics of perception
a) perception is process
b) perception is the information extractor
c) perception is preparation to response
d) perception involve in sensation
e) perception involve organ is action
f) perception is highly individualized

Perceptual Processes : Pathways to perception

 There are different approaches to perception which are also known as
pathways to perception there are mainly two different pathways. They are:
i) Top-Down approach
Perception that is Guided by high level knowledge, experience, expectation
and motivation is top-down processing in this type processing we perceive something
as a whole. It believes on the principle that whole is better than the sume of the partks
we need to have more knowledge and should male carful thought to perceive as a
whole.
ii) Bottom-Up Approach
In bottom up process perception of consist of the progression or recognition
of different compound (Parts) step by step. It means perception of stimulus from its
parts is known as bottom-up approach. In this approach it believes on the principle
that some of the parts is better than the whole.
Subliminal and extrasensory Perception (ESP)
Subliminal perception refers to the perception of message about which we
have no awareness. The stimulus would be written word or a sound, or a smell, or a
taste, or any kind of feeling that activate the sensory system but that is not intense
enough for a person to report or explain of having it experienced.
Extrasensory perception (ESP) on the other hand refers to the perception that
does not involve our known senses. It means perception of something's that does not
exist is extrasensory. Sometimes, we happened to hear about which there is no
stimulus to produce sound. Similarly, we happen to see something that does not exist.
Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization
i) Principle of Figure-ground relationship
ii) Principle of closure
iii) Principle of Grouping
iv) Principle of simplicity
v) Principle of contour (boundary)
vi) Principle of context
vii) Principle of contrast
viii) Principle of adaptability
In Germany ,some of the psychologists formed school of thought that went against
behavioural psychology known as Gestalt school of thought . Kofka Cohler was the
leader of this thought . The principles introduced by this school regarding perception
organization are called gestalt principles of perceptual organization. Some of such
principle are as follows :
Principle of figure ground relationship
According to this principle of figure is perfected as a whole in relationship to
its background. E,g, a student is perfected in the background of university, A tree is
perfected in the background of forest.
Principle of Closure
According to this principle, we obtain to complete or closure the pattern or fill
in the sensory gaps and perceived it as a meaningful whole.
Principle of Grouping
According to this principle, perception of anything is complete in the group
rather than in isolation. This kind of grouping might to be established on the bases of
three areas: similarly continuity proximity.
Principle of Simplicity
According to this principle, we tried to interpret our sensory information in
implicates pattern. It means the simple the stimulus, the more perception. It is very
different to perceive anything complex.
Principle of Contour
A contours said to be boundary between a figure andits ground, contour helps
to perceived the stimulus better and faster. Contour seperates the figure from ground
and helps us to organize the perception in a better way.
Principle of adaptability
According to this principle, the more we adopted and the easier the adoption
the better the perception, adaptation to the new environment help us to perceive in a
better way.
Principle of Context
According to this principle perception organization is governed by the
principle of context. It means context helps to understand anything better and faster.
Perception without context is impossible because context has meaning.
Principle of Contrast
It is said that tings which hare in complete contrast are precise better thanes
those thing which are not in clear contras.

Perceptual Illusion
It can be defined as the process in which we perceive something wrong. It is
also known as false perception or mal perception. There can be movement of illusion,
illusion of size illusion of direction, illusion of long etc.
Perceptual Delusion
It can be defined as the perception of any wrong information due to the
problem of mind. It is sometimes known as perception due to mental disorders.
Perceptual hallucination (ESP)
Perceptual Ambiguity and Distortion
It sometimes happens that the same stimulus might not be produced in the
some way all the time by the individual. It means a stimulus might have multiple inter
pretention, based on the situation perception Ambiguity refers to such double or
multiple interpretation or meaning of the some stimulus. Such kind of ambiguity
creates conflicts or misunderstandings that sometimes helps us to clarify the
meaning.
In the process perception, there might be several problems, distribution or
obstacles known as perception distracters and distributes in understanding of stimulus
in known perceptional distortion. Perception distortion might be caused due to
different physical (Environmental) mental, emotional and psychology factor. Many
people regard that only the noise in the environment creates problems in the process
of perception. But different emotional like anger, surprise, excitement sadness and
psychological problems like stress, forestation fear, anxiety and different mental
problem like low intelligence, lack of insight, random thinking etc. also create
problems in the perception. It is found that broken family uneven society, lack of
propels governance, uncultured practices, all social times creates problems in
perception.
 Social Cognition and Behaviour
Social cognition refers to the cognitive process in which people understand
and make sense of other and themselves in the process of cognition we make use of
schemas and scripts. Schemas refers to the permanent strict cognitive knowledge
according to context. In the process of social cognitive, there takes place the processes
of assimilation and accommodation. If our new knowledge gets matched with the old
one and refreshes the mental image, it is known as assimilation. Similarly, if the new
knowledge replace the old one, it is known as accommodation.
Process of Social Cognition
In the process of social cognition, we first noticed the event then we intreprate
the event on the based of schemas. After interpreting the event we formed the initial
explanation based on available time, resource and situation. After initial explanation,
we tried to solve the problem or formulated the new theory to solve given problem.
Finally, we evoluted whether the theory formed if the evolutes able to solve the
problem or not, This process is diagrammatic. it is shown as below:
 Nothing the even

Interpreting the Event

Forming initial Explanation

Solving the problem through a new theory

Evolution of Theory
Social attitudes
Social attitudes are the central concept of social psychology. Attitudes are
evolutions on a particulars person, beliefs , concept, behaviour we can change our
attitudes depending upon a number of factors.
1) Message source
2) Characteristics of Massages
3) Characteristics of targets
Attitudes influence the behavriour. The relationship between particular
attitudes and situation. People who held consists attitude will have positive attitude,
people who held in consist. attitude may have negative attitude towards others people
who have positive attitude show good behaviour and play an important role in
thinking, problem solving managing emotions, memory and so on. On the other hand,
people having negative emotions do not show good behaviours and create problems.
Social Influence: It is kind of behaviors that show in society in response to
different individuals
Conformity : Changing ones behaviour to match other behaviour.
Compliance: Changing one's behaviour due to director of these
Obedience : Following rules and culture due to demand of the situation.
Social Influence
Social influence can be defined as the change in an individual
thoughts, feelings, attitude or behaviours that results from interaction with another
individual or a group. It is the process through which the real present of others
directly or indirectly influence the thoughts, feeling or behaviour of the individuals.
There are three area of social influence.
i) Social Conformity
 It is the kind of social influence that involves a change in believe or
behaviour in order to fit with the situation or group of people. It means social
conformity is changing one's behaviours to match with the behaviour of other.
ii) Social Compliance
Social compliance is changing one's behaviour as a result of other
people's direction or baking for the change. Social compliance occurs when other
people direct or order to change the behaviour. It means social compliance is the types
of social influence where an individuals does what someone wants them to do
following his/ her request or suggestion. There are different techniques to gain social
compliance.
a) The foot in the door techniques
It refers to technique in which agreeing to a simple request increase the
likely hood of agreeing to a second request it is sometime difficult to make a large
request out once. So, we make breakdown the request into serial step.
b) Door in the face teaching
In this technique we make a large request at first to make him/her
accept the small request. It means when a person refuses to the large request these is
greater change that he/she will accept the small request if made again.
c) The low-ball technique
This is the teahnique in which we make somebody change the
behaviour making the committement in advance.
d) That's not all technique
This is the technique in which an individual offers something extra to make the offer
look better before target person can make the decision.
Social obedience
It refers to the types of social influence where an individuals brings change in
the behaviour due to the request of an authority or to follow the rule, regulation,
system and norms. It involves the power status, genders and so on.

Prejudices and Discrimination

Prejudice +Unjustified and increase attitude
Discrimination-Negative attitude
The term prejudice refers to the tradition which lead people to view their
opponents threading in other words the word prejudice can also as pre judgement
without any logic. It refers the unjustified and incorrect attitude that refers to people's
habits, customs, traditions, values which complain to view other as their enemies. For
example. People may have the idea that women should not attend funeral ceremony.
we sacrifice animals for the sake of god etc for these examples, we come to that
prejudice is baseless,p rejustifed wrong thinking that leads people to think other's as
their oppositions.
Discrimination on the other hand is the behavior or action which is usually
negative towards an individual or group of people specially towards an individual or
group of people on the basis of sex, race, religion, color, social class, age, level, etc.
for eg. treating women- men differently for the some action is known discrimination.
Inviting only Hindu for the program is an example of discrimination. Such kind of
discrimination may lead conflict and frustration in society among the people.
 Unit –IV
Learning and Memory
Learning
Learning occupies a very important place in our life. Learning can defined as
the change or modification in the behavior of an in individual that results from birth to
death. In another words, learning is acquisition of new knowledge, skills that bring
certain changes in the behavior learning which is affected by the experiences.
Characteristics of Learning
1) Learning is the process, not the product.
2) Learning involves all these experiences and training of an individual which
helps his/her to product change in his/her behaviours.
3) Learning prepares an individual for the necessary adaptation.
4) All learning proposeful and goal oriented.
5) The scope of learning to wide as it includes cognitive, cognitive, accective
human behaviours.
6) Learning is universal and continuous.
What is not Learning?
Any undesirable change in behaviour due to fatigue, illness, maturation, drugs
etc is called, Not learning.
Different psychologists have given different types of learning, but according to our
syllabus, there are 4 major types of learning:
i. Instinct Learning
It refers to learning by birth, There are different behaviours in our life with we
learn by birth. Learning to speak, work, eat sleep etc.
ii. Behaviour Learning: (SR)
It refers to learning through stimulate response chain. It means we learn
anything observing behavior of others, it is called behavior learning.

iii. Cognitive Learning (SOR)

it is the learning process in which we change our behavior due to our mind due
to own memory, intelligence, inside, wisdom
iv. Complex Forms of Learning
It includes learning to solve the problem, learning theory, principle. It is highest level
of learning. All the above given types of learning are placed from simple to complex
hierarchy.
Learning Theories
There are different theories that deal with how learning takes place. The
theory of learning are mainly classified into types:
Behavioural Learning Theories
These theories are based on stimulus response chain. These theories influence
the role of reward, practice, reinforcement, memorization etc. There are three
different theories under this category.
1. Classical Conditional Theory
This theory was introduced by Pavlov. Classical conditioning can be defined
as conditional or learning in which the artificial stimulus bring natural response if the
bell (artificial, stimulus) makes the dog secrete the saliva (natural response). It is
known as classical conditioning

Experiment

Pavlov carried out an experiment on dog, he designed a box (a room) in

which he managed to see all the activities of the dog from outside. It was managed
that the dog could see nothing from inside. Pavlov rang the bell and get food (meat) to
the dog and the dog secrete salive. This process was repeated for number of days and
the dog increased salivating every day. After, a number of days, only bell was rung
but the food wasn't given but the dog secrete saliva. In this way, not only the food but
alos the ringing of the bell was able to make the dog salivate which is known as
classical conditional by Pavlov. In this experiment, 4 different elements are involved
which are presented in the diagram or table below:

Food (Meat) Saliva

(Natural Stimulus) (Natural Response)
Unconditional Stimulus (US) Unconditional Response (UR)

Ringing of the Bell Alertness

(Conditioned Stimulus (CS) (Conditioned Response (CR)
 Principles of classical conditioning (See the book )
Application of classical conditioning Theory (See the book)

Operant Conditioning Theory

Experiment on Rat: B.F. Skinner carried out on experiment on Rat .Skinner
designed and artificial box known as Skinner's box. He kept Rat into the box and
closed the door of the box. It was managed that whenever the rat pressed the levees
food would be released. The rat was required to manipulate the lever correctly in
order to open the door of the box. The rat jumped, crawled, snatched etc and luckily
the rat was able to manipulate lever correctly and the door opened and the rat got the
food, The process was repeated the number of days and finally the rat learnt the art of
opening door with the help of reward (Food).
Operant Behavior and Respondent Behaviour
B.F. Skinner distinguished between operant behavior and respondent behavior.
According to Skinner operant behavior is the behavior that is developed even in the
absence of stimulus but for permanent learning take place, operant behavior should
be rewarded According to Skinner's rat’s behavior in the box was operant behavior.
The organism must be active even in the absence of stimulus for operant behavior
Respondent behavior refers to the behavior that occurs only in the response to
stimulus. It means the response of stimulus is known as respondent behavior. The
organism doesn't need to be active for respondent behavior. According to Skinner
Pavlov's dog displayed respondent’s behavior.
Concept of Reinforcement
Reinforcement term is the term used by the Skinner, it is defined as the
stimulus whose presence and absence increases and decreases the probability for the
response to re-occur. Reinforcement can be of two types: Positive reinforcement and
negative reinforcement.
1) Positive Reinforcement
The stimulus whose presence increases the probability for the action to
reoccur.
i. Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement refers to the reinforcement whose absence decreases
the probability for the response to re-occur.
Such reinforcement can be given in different ways known as schedule of
reinforcement. There are four different schedule of reinforcement
1. Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
In this schedule of reinforcement reinforcement is given after every correct
response continuously.
2. Fixed Ratio reinforcement Schedule
In this reinforcement schedule, reinforcement is given after fixed number of
current respondents for example, we might give reinforcement after every 5 current
reinforcement or every 10 current responses.
3. Fixed interval Reinforcement Schedule
In this schedule, reinforcement is given after every certain period of time. For
eg: we might give reinforcement after every half an hour or every 15 minutes.
4. Variable Reinforcement Schedule
In this schedule reinforcement is given at any time randomly.
Principles of Operant Conditioning
1. Operant behavior
2. Concept of operant behavior
3. Concept of reinforcement
4. behavior modification and shaping
5. habit Formation
Application of Operant Conditioning Theory
1. The most important application of operant conditioning theory is that
one must be active in order to learn something.
2. Reward and Reinforcement plays the very important role in learning
behavior.
3. Habit formation repetition, memorizations are the special tools that can
be used for learning.
Distinguish Between Operant Theory and Classical Conditioning Theory( see the
book )
Trial and Error Theory
Thorndike introduced trial and error Theory. Thorndika called it theory of
connection or band theory. According to this theory learning is possible only when
there is connection between stimulus and response. The strong relationship between
the stimulus and response develop the connection which bring positive result.
 Experiment on cat
Thorndike experimented on cat. It designed a box into which he kept a hungry
cat. Outside the box, food was hung. The smiling of food and hungry of the cat made
it jump crawl scratch the box and luckily the cat was able to press the level correctly
and as a result of this the door of the box opened and the cat get the food. The food
was so taste that it satisfied the eat same process was repeated for number of day and
at the beginning the cat committed a number errors in the successive trial the cat
minimized the errors and privy the cat was able to fixed the idea of pressing the levees
to open the door and art of opening the door to get food.
Factors affect of learning processing
 Goal: It refers to ultimate success that individual ones to often in the
experiment the goal of the cat was to catch the food.
 Drive: We need to develop internal desire to learn the something's. The
intimae desire of the cat was hunger in the experiment.
 Block: To learn something, there should be obstruct, obstacle leads us
to do hard work. In the experiment, 'the close the door' was the obstacle.
 Random Trails: To learn something Random trails play very important
role. It is necessary to trail and commit and number of error before we get success.
 Chance success: Among different trails, we need to have chance
success to learn something. In the experiment cat suddenly the chance success to
open the door up to number of the trails.
 Fixation of success: It is very important to fixation the success that we
get by chance.
Laws of learning (Principles of Trial and Error Theory)
Thorndike introduced two types of laws as principle of Trial and Error theory.
1. Primary Laws
Primary laws are more important than secondary laws. There are three primary
laws:
 Law of Readiness
It refers to the fact that one must be ready by hard to learn something. This
principle coincides with the proverb one can lead a horse to water, but he/she can't
make it drink.

  Laws of Effect
According to this law there should be certain significant or impact of learning.
It means learning should result satisfaction.
 Law of Practice
According to this law, sufficient of practice of good habits and no practice of
bad habit should be practice for effective learning. This law is subdivide into two
parts.
a. Practice of use: (Practise of good habits)
b. Practice of discuss (no Practice of bad habits)

2. Secondary Laws
Secondary laws are less important than primary laws. There are 4 different
secondary laws.
i. Law of Multiple Response: It implies that when an individual in
confronted with a new situation he response in a variety of ways.
ii. Law of Attitude : According to this law one most have