UNIT 10

WORKING DRAWINGS

10.1 Introduction
The design, manufacture, assembly, operation, and maintenance of engineered products need proper documentation.
Working drawings are documentation and communication instruments for simple to complex assemblies. They are
used to convert design graphic models into physical products, that is, they are the documents of design intent used for
constructing or building the designed product. They should provide a complete description of a product visually and
dimensionally as well as specify standard parts. Working drawings are also known as production or construction
drawings in some discipline. They are fundamental in manufacturing and construction businesses and are considered
as legal documents. Quality, correctness, and completeness are paramount in their preparation. Prototype and
production designs need working drawings.

Working drawings usually consist of two parts in mechanical design, namely detail and assembly drawings. Detail
drawings are often prepared as annotated multiple 2D views drawings of a single component with complete
dimensions, tolerances and notes for construction, manufacturing and inspection. The common practice in the
industry is to prepare a detail drawing for each custom component. Having multiple detail drawings on a single sheet
is discouraged due to the changes that may occur in some components. Assembly drawings are prepared for
mechanisms, devices, units, and products. They show the relative positions of components when assembled for
functional use. An assembly drawing must include all components in a product that consist of standard and custom
(non-standard) parts. These parts are listed in a bill of materials (BOM) or parts list. All custom parts in an assembly
drawing must be accompanied by a detail drawing. However, standard parts in an assembly drawing do not need
detail drawings but proper specifications for each of them must be provided.

Written instructions in working drawings are called specifications. In general, specifications may provide technical
requirement information on parts, manufacturing, and assembling processes. They may include material type and
grade, processing methods, surface finish, etc. Specifications may appear as general notes or are put together as
separate documents as is commonly done in architectural projects. They should be clear and easily understood. The
design drafter should add specifications to a working drawing as needed, but the correctness of the specifications is
the responsibility of the designer or engineer.

Practically, a design project will produce several working drawings. These are usually bundled together and delivered
to a client as a set. For example a house design project ends with a complete set of drawings consisting of plans,
elevations and details. A drawing set should completely communicate the design intent. A builder of a design should
be able to construct the artifact by correctly interpreting the drawings and faithfully following the specifications in
the drawing set. Some CAD packages are able to generate a drawing set for a project. The design office usually keeps
a copy of a drawing set in vaults or fireproof cabinets. Backup or archival electronic copies of drawing sets are kept
in CAD offices.

10.2 CAD and Working Drawings

CAD has certainly revolutionized design and drafting. Most CAD packages have features that help user increase
productivity. Solid modeling in CAD has empowered design drafters and provides opportunities of building virtual
products. In addition, when preparing working drawings, features are available for creating textstyle, dimension style,
layers, and templates that are highly reusable. This leads to savings in time and efforts, speeding up the deign
process. The CAD manager usually has the responsibility of setting the standards or parameters for these features for
company wide applications. The design drafter should learn to take advantage of these features early in his or her
career by developing the habit of using them. Clear and readable text is vital for working drawings, so printing or
plotting drawings in monochrome is recommended in this regard. You might save some ink in a large volume project
using smaller lineweight or thickness. Similarly, using open or unfilled arrows for leaders and dimension line
terminators may help in conserving ink in high volume projects.

In a CAD environment, solid models of custom parts in a design project are created with each in a separate file. Even
with the most complex components, the solid model can be created in a relatively short time. However, the database
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should first be studied to see if use can be made of existing components or some could be modified to create new
ones. Standard part models should be obtained from vendors if necessary. However dummy models of standard parts
can easily be made by creating block models. These are models with exterior resemblance to the standard part but the
interior is solid. When all part models are available, the assembly models are then created. The assembly models
should be checked for clashes or interferences. All detected clashes must be eliminated before generating the drawing
views and detail drawings.

To maximize CAD productivity, the design drafter must master the use of some features in CAD packages such as
textstyle, dimension style, layers and templates. This is a great advantage when preparing working drawings. A text
style defines a set of character attributes for specific applications. Different text styles can be defined for different
tasks. A dimension style defines a set of attributes for dimension display in specific applications such as mechanical,
civil, or architectural. Layers may be considered as transparent pages in a document or file. It is used to organize
related drawing information into groups. Most CAD packages come with default template files. The user can
customize some of these template files or create desired ones from scratch. Appendix A provides more information
on these CAD features topic.

10.2 Elements of Working Drawings

Working drawings consist of graphic views and annotations. Drawing views depend on the type of documentation
required and annotation content will vary accordingly. The elements usually found on a working drawing include:
a) Drawing views b) Title block c) Name of part/assembly d) Quantity
e) Part number f) Material and grade g) Dimensions f) Tolerances
g) Scale h) Notes i) Drawing number j) Revision
k) Project number l) Assembly number m) Zone markers n) Surface quality

In orthographic detail drawings, it is common in practice to have an isometric view included, though annotations are
not added to the isometric view as shown in Fig. 10.1. Hence the isometric view is added to necessary orthographic
views principally to aid visualization and sometimes for completeness of documentation. Such an isometric view
may be called an iso-insert: an isometric view that is included in an ortho-detail or assembly drawing that is not
annotated.

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 Fig. 10.1: An iso-insert in ortho-detail drawing
Drawing Views: The drawing views and annotation space in Fig. 10. 1 is empty because the sheet is set up as a
template which can be modified as needed. The views in a working drawing are the required graphic images of the
product model. Drawing views for detail drawings are of the orthographic types: front, top, and side views. Auxiliary
and sections views are used for more details and clarity. Assembly drawings may be orthographic and pictorial in
form. Standard orthographic and full-section views are popular. Outline, exploded and sectioned pictorial views are
also in common use.

Title Block: A title block is provided in Fig. 10.1. The Title block is used to record important information about a
company and a part or product. It should contain pertinent information like company name and address, drawing title
and record number, sheet size and number, names of design drafter and checker, issue date, and project number.
Other information is approvals, projection standard, scale, component weight (estimate or actual) and Commercial
And Government Entity (CAGE) code (formerly Federal Supply Code for Manufacturers (FSCM)). The title block
width is 160 mm (6.25”) for A, B, and C sheets and 195 mm (7.62”) for D and E sheet sizes by ANSI guideline. The
height of title block varies between 25 mm (1”) and 45 mm (1.75”) for A, B and C sheets, and between 1” and 2.5”
for D and E sizes. Metric sheet sizes closest to A, B, C, D and E are A4, A3, A2 A1, and A0; respectively. By
ANSI’s standard, the Title block should be located on the lower right corner of the drawing sheet. However, some
companies use their own convention. Using Metric sizes should be preferable to English sizes.

Scale: A scale factor (SF) is required for each working drawing. The design drafter chooses the front view and scale
of a drawing. The SF for a drawing should be an integer chosen from a set of preferred values. English SF are often
fractions or multiples of 16. Common values are 1, 2, 4, 8, and 10. Common metric SFs are 1.0, 2, 5, and 10.
Multiplying these values by 10 generates other SFs. English and metric scales are specified differently. For reduction
scaling in English drawings, the format is 1=SF and 1: SF for Metric drawings. For instance if SF is 2, the scale is
specified in English as 1 = 2 and 1:2 in Metric. For enlargement scaling in English drawings, the format is SF=1 and
SF:1 for Metric drawings. Note that there are some variations in the format for specifying English scales, especially
in architectural drawings. Scale factor of 1 implies full-scale drawing in ether English or Metric Unit.

Dimensions and Tolerances: Detail or working drawings must have dimensions for the functional sizes of the
components. In addition to functional dimensions, parts with mating faces critical for functionality should have
tolerances. Tolerances are allowed variations on dimensions and are critical for proper functioning of some
components in mechanical devices. For example, ball and roller bearings and housing fits need close tolerances
because a tight fit may cause failure of ball, roller, or lubricant. A loose fit on the other hand can cause slippage of
bearing in the housing, resulting in vibration, excessive wear or overheating. Standard tolerances may be added
directly to the dimensions or specified in general notes. Angular dimensions in both Metric and English drawings are
given in degrees. Dimensions in detail drawings may be indicated as limits with upper and lower values or as
functional size with bilateral or unilateral tolerances. The limit specification is well suited for inspection or
measurement purposes. Components for mass production and interchangeable manufacture should have geometric
tolerances because they need close tolerances. Dimensions are generally not given in assembly drawings except
specific those critical for proper assembly.

Surface quality: The surface quality of machined surfaces is complex but is often described by symbols and
roughness values in drawings. Surface roughness is the tiny irregularities on surfaces, usually of the order of microns.
The most popular parameter of surface roughness is the arithmetic mean average surface roughness value. It is
measured in micro inches (English Units) or microns (SI Units). Surface roughness and fine tolerance are closely
related. Close tolerances are possible only on high quality surfaces. Fine machining, grinding, honing, or lapping
may be used to obtain a desired smoothness. The control of surface roughness is important for two reasons: to reduce
friction and control wear. These two factors influence the service life and performance quality of machines and
equipment. It is the responsibility of a designer or engineer to specify appropriate surface finish for functionality at
minimum cost. The surface texture symbol should be placed on the edge view of a surface to be machined. Refer to
Appendix B for more information on surface texture.

Notes: Notes provide textual information in drawings. They may be explanatory or required information needed on
drawings for proper interpretation or clarification of certain requirements. Notes should be simple, concise and clear.
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Two types of notes may be found in working drawings and are general and local notes. General notes apply to the
whole drawing. They are located at the base of a drawing or may be part of the title block. Examples are “All
dimensions in millimeters”; “Unspecified fillets and rounds = xxx”; “FAO (Finish all over)”; “For quotation
purposes only”; “Top secret”; “Restricted drawing”; “Do not copy”; “Confidential document”; etc. References to
standards such as ASME, ANSI, MIL (Military) can be made as general notes. Specific statements on heat treatment,
general tolerances, surface finish, etc, important for proper functioning of components are included as notes. General
instructions on assembly methods or procedure may be included in assembly drawings. Sometimes general notes
about welding and specifications on bolt tightening and statements on cleaning and painting are added to assembly
drawings.

Local notes apply only to a portion or a specific feature in a drawing. Notes should be made simple and concise. A
leader line normally links a local note to a feature or portion of a drawing. Local notes are located close to the feature
referenced. Callouts and balloons are special formats of placing local notes. Balloons are local notes placed inside a
shape (circle, diamond, etc). Callouts are local notes placed without shape. Please refer to Fig. 1.7 for depictions of
leader line, callout, and balloon.

It is important for all relevant information about specific manufacturing requirements such as hardness, strength,
plating, polishing, shot peening, testing requirements and methods, etc., to be specified in detail drawings. In fact all,
requirements affecting manufacturing cost information must be indicated so as not to infringe on contractual
agreements with vendors or third party suppliers. Vendors cannot be held responsible for inferior goods if
requirements are not made clear in a contract.

Zone Markers: Zoning is a technique used in large sheet sizes to aid in quickly locating information on a drawing.
Zone markers are spaced numbers (1, 2, 3, etc,) on the top and bottom margins and letters (A, B, C, etc) on the left
and right margins. A zone is defined by the intersection of a letter segment and a number segment, e.g. A2. Since a
zone is a very small section of the drawing paper, locating a piece of information in it is fast. In Fig. 10.1, the label
“Title block” is in zone A4 and the label “Revision block” in zone B2.

Projection Standard: There are two standards for orthographic projection: first angle and third angle. In first angle
projection, the images are projected behind the object, but they are projected to the front of the object in third angle
projection. Standard symbols are used to represent projection standards in drawings. Detail drawings should bear the
appropriate symbol of the projection standard. The template of Fig. 10.1 is set up for third angle projection.

Revision block: By ANSI standard, a revision block should be located on the upper right corner of the sheet as shown
in Fig. 10.1. The revision block width is 140 mm (5.5”) for A, B, and C sheets and 180 mm (7.0”) for D and E sizes
by ANSI guideline. The height of revision block varies, depending on the history of revisions. The header of a
revision block usually has two rows, each of 6 mm (0.25”) high. It is located at the top upper right corner of the
drawing. Sometimes it is placed to the left of or on top of the title block. Changes to approved drawings are
documented in the revision block. The change information may include the name of person making the change
request, description of change, reason for change, request date, change number and approval. Usually, conceptual and
preliminary drawings are not approved drawings and may be changed without proper documentation of changes.
However, working drawings are approved drawings and changes on them must be properly documented and
approved.

10.6 Detail Component Drawings

Detail drawings are required precise drawings for non-standard parts in an assembly. They are used for construction,
manufacturing and inspection purposes. They provide information about shape, size, and location for each feature on
a component. Detail drawings can be prepared from sketches or generated from 3D CAD models.

10.6.1 Non-standard Parts

Each non-standard part in an assembly or subassembly must have a detail drawing. Detail drawings are often 2D
multiview orthographic (ortho-detail) drawings obtained by viewing a 3-D object from different directions. Chapters
5, 6, and 7 deal the creation of standard and supplementary (auxiliary and section) views. These views are arranged

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in well-defined pattern according to 3rd angle or 1st angle standard whose symbolic representations are shown in Fig.
10.5.

a) First angle b) Third angle

Fig. 10.5: Standard projection symbols

The U.S. standard views are top, front and right views, based on third angle orthographic projection. The European
standard views are front, top and left views, based on first angle orthographic projection. Most drawings in the
United States and Canada are based on the third angle projection. Fig. 10.3 gives the principal directions for
orthographic projection. Fig. 10.4 shows the layout of 3rd and 1st angle projections while Fig. 10.5 shows the symbols
for the two standards of projection. Adhering to these standards is a professional issue.

a) Isometric

b) First angle projection c) Third angle projection

Fig. 10.6: Standard orthographic projections

Fig. 10.6a shows an isometric view of an object. The standard views of the isometric view in first and third angle
projections are shown in Fig. 10.6b and Fig. 10.6c, respectively. The U.S. standard views are based on third angle
orthographic projection and are the top, front, and right views. Drawing views in third angle projection are arranged
such that the top view is on top of the front view and the right view is to the right of the front view. The front and top
views must be vertically aligned, while the front and right views must be horizontally aligned. Most drawings in the
United States and Canada are based on the third angle projection. The European standard views are based on first
angle orthographic projection and are the front, top, and left views as shown in Fig. 10.6c. Drawing views in first
angle projection are arranged such that the top view is below the front view and the left view is to the right of the
front view. The front and top views must be vertically aligned, while the front and left views must be horizontally
aligned. All standard orthographic views when shown together in a drawing; must have the same plot scale.
Orthographic views are discussed in detail later in another chapter.

10.6.2 Front View Choice

Choosing a correct front view is very important in ortho-detail drawings. The following points should be considered
when making a front view choice in detail drawings.
a) Most stable or natural position. b) Contains the least hidden features.
c) Best shape or most descriptive profile. d) Shows the longest dimension.

10.6.3 Necessary Views

Detail drawings should be prepared with the minimum multiviews required for complete description. In drawing
layout design, the goal is to construct annotated multiview drawings from the 3D model or sketches on a standard
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sheet. Each component must be properly examined and the minimum views necessary for complete description
decided on. In orthographic views, a principal view reveals only two principal dimensions. Therefore, a minimum of
two principal views are usually required to show all three principal sizes. For example, the front view only can show
the width and height dimensions. The depth dimension is not shown in the front view. By combining front and top
views or front and right views, the three principal dimensions of the objects can be known. Adding an isometric
insert to two or more orthographic views will aid visualization of the object.

A drawing in standard orthographic views requires three views. However, some objects may need less or more views
for complete description. For example, spheres need only one view for representation. Components of uniform shape
(e.g. square, circular, triangular, and rectangular) or that have relatively complex profiles but very small thickness
(e.g. sheet metal components) may be described by one view. Such drawings normally include notes specifying the
object thickness. Objects with axial symmetry and without complicated features may be represented with two views.
Examples are cylindrical, conical and pyramidal objects. Irregular objects generally need two or more views for
representation.

Sometimes auxiliary and section views are necessary in detail drawings. Auxiliary views are needed when a feature
is distorted in one or more principal views. Features are distorted in a principal view whenever they appear on an
inclined or oblique face on an object. As the form of components gets more complicated, inclined and oblique faces
may become part of their features. To create the necessary auxiliary view of true shape and size, first identify or
create an edge view of the face, then project the face in a direction perpendicular to the edge view plane. Partial
auxiliary views give clearer presentation. A section view is an orthographic projection view drawn to reveal internal
or hidden features in an object. Section views are created by defining an imaginary cutting plane or planes on the
object so that the observer can see the internal details. Note that the direction of view dictates which feature(s) will be
hidden or visible and projection standards determine view directions. Hidden lines are generally not shown in
sections. Hatch lines (also called section lines) are used to indicate solid materials that are cut through. A
combination of hatch lines is called a pattern. A hatch pattern has certain attributes such as orientation and line
spacing. Some hatch pattern types are used to represent specific materials. Both part and assembly sections can be
created. Section and auxiliary views can substitute for standard orthographic views, and this helps to keep the number
of views down. Section views improve visualization of designs, clarify multiviews and facilitate dimensioning of
hidden features.

10.6.4 Plot Scale Choice

Most CAD software provides two work environments known as model space and paper space. CAD model space
may be 3D or 2D coordinate space and is used to construct 3D and 2D graphic models at full-size, respectively, so
choosing a scale is not required. CAD paper space is a 2D space specially designed for preparing drawings for
printing or plotting. When drawing views are placed in paper space, they are scaled to fit into a standard electronic
sheet. At plotting time, no further scaling is required since electronic standard sheets are sized to match physical
standard sheets. When drawings are plotted from model space, appropriate scale must be applied so that they can fit
into physical standard sheets. Scaling involves geometric proportioning, the establishment of a relationship between
sizes of two or more geometrically similar entities. This is achieved in technical drawing by defining a plot scale. A
plot scale is a ratio of proportion between a design size and the drawing size. It is called a scale factor (SF) in design
drafting and depends on the design size, the level of detail information associated with the drawing views, and the
sheet size chosen for plotting the drawing. Tables 10.2 gives some commonly used plot scale factors in some
disciplines.

Mechanical Scales Architectural Scales

Scale Interpretation Scale Interpretation
1” = 1” Full size 1:1 Full size
½” = 1” Half size 1:2 Half size
¼” =1” Quarter size 1:5 Fifth size
1/8” = 1” Eighth size 1:10 Tenth size
1/16” =1 Sixteenth 1:20 Twentieth size
Table 10.2: Common Mechanical scales

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Engineering drawings can be scaled in two ways: reduction scaling and enlargement scaling. In the reduction scaling
case, the size of the print or drawing is smaller than the design size. This situation is common in architectural, civil,
mid-sized and heavy mechanical equipment design. In enlargement scaling the size of the print is larger than the
design size. In micro-scale designs and nanotechnologies, sizes of objects must be magnified for representation in
macro scale. Enlargement scaling is therefore common in these fields. The plot scale factor is chosen as an integer
that is greater or equal to unity. At full-scale, the plot size is equal to the design size and SF is 1. Usually, preferred
values of SF are available and some are specific to design disciplines such as mechanical, architectural, civil, etc. The
scale factor for a drawing is chosen from preferred values. Choosing a scale factor is a very important skill in design
drafting.
When the overall design size differs from the default graphic workspace size in a CAD package, the text size has to
be adjusted to be visible and readable on screen. The screen text height is obtained by scaling the desired plot text
height. In most situations, the plot scale factor is used to multiply the plot text height but a more appropriate screen
factor may be determined by the overall design size relative to the default workspace size.

10.6.5 Standard Parts

Traditionally, drawings of standard parts were omitted in detail drawings. However, in a solid model design, standard
parts must be represented. Some vendors may provide solid model database for their products and a designer can
download them for use. If solid models of standard parts are unavailable, “dumb” models could be created. The dumb
model lacks internal details but bears external resemblance to the standard part. Dumb models can be created using
box and cylinder primitives and should satisfy the following conditions:
a) should have accurate size or volume of component;
b) should have approximate outline or external features;
c) should have no internal details.

10.6.6 Detail Drawing Examples

Fig. 10.6 shows a detail drawing of a part of two views (top and front section views) in third angle projection are
shown. Most of the elements discussed above can be identified in this drawing. Fig. 10.7 shows another detail
drawing of a part. This is has a standard front view, two auxiliary views, a partial top view, and the isometric insert.
It is obvious in this case that the isometric insert helps in visualizing the component. Notice that a revision block is
shown in Fig. 10.7. A revision note labeled “A” is provided indicating the first revision on the component that
involved the changing of the dimension 73.15 mm from 70 mm.

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 Fig. 10.6: Ortho-detail drawing

Fig. 10.7: Mixed views detail drawing

10.7 Assembly Working Drawings

Engineering products or systems may be decomposed into units (sub-assemblies), devices, mechanisms, and
components or parts. Product, unit, device, or mechanism assembly drawings are part of working drawings.
Assembly drawings like part or detail drawings consist of drawing views and annotations. Assembly drawing views
show the relative positions of all the components in a mechanism, device, unit or product and could be pictorial or
orthographic. Pictorial drawings provide very realistic presentations of assembly drawings. However, orthographic
views (orthoviews) drawings are often needed for complete description and broken section views are commonly used
to reveal small details. Sometimes, one section view (the front view) may be enough for an assembly drawing. Due to
the extensive use of section views in assembly drawings, hidden lines are often not needed. When they are not
omitted, it is solely for clarity. The goal is to use the minimum drawing views in describing a product. The amount of
annotations in assembly drawings often depends on the nature and complexity of the product. As a rule, dimensions
are not shown in assembly drawings because they are given in detail drawings. If included, the dimensions define
relative positions of parts, not those of individual components. Overall dimensions may be found in some assembly
drawings and sometimes, critical dimensions are indicated along with manufacturing and assembly instructions.
Other assembly notes may include bolt tightening requirements, assembly welds, cleaning, or decal for safety notices
to be attached on product after assembly. Each assembly drawing must include all standard and custom parts. It
should include a bill of materials (BOM) or parts list, title and revision blocks.

In large or complex products, hundreds if not thousands of units or subassemblies may be involved. Such situations
require the use of consistent unit assembly reference numbers that are linked with the product assembly. It is
common for a master list of all the units in the product to be compiled in a table. Similarly, a master list of
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components and the units they are needed is compiled. Often two or more units may use the same component and
tracking the number of component occurrences in products from a company becomes important. Product data
management software is designed to handle situations like this. They are able to monitor and generate reports on
components and other related information on products on a companywide basis.

Bill of Materials (BOM): Assembly drawings normally carry a block for a bill of materials or parts list. It is usually a
table list of the parts or components in an assembly. Important information in BOM includes item reference number
(IRN), quantity, part name, part record number (PRN), description, catalog number for standard parts, and name of
vendors. The item number is the number assigned to a component in a particular assembly drawing, a form of local
identification and can change with different assembly drawings. The part number is a fixed number assigned to a
specific component, by a company. It should not change for different drawings within the same company. Because
detail drawings are not required for standard parts, they must have proper specifications provided in BOM or in a
specification document. Standard parts are often mass-produced and so are usually cheaper to buy than non-standard
parts. Thus, the use of standard parts as much as possible in design leads to lower product cost and faster time to the
market. Examples are washers, bolts and nuts, screws, bearings, pins, etc. The specifications for standard parts
include name, size, grade, quantity, and catalog number. In general, other information like weight, stock size, etc,
may be included in the parts list. By ANSI standard, a block for a bill of materials should be located on the lower
right corner of the drawing sheet, on top of the title block, but variation exists in the industry on its placement. The
block width varies, with a minimum value of about 65 mm (2.5”) for smaller sheet sizes. It may be as much as 200
mm (8”) for the larger sheet sizes. The height of block also varies, depending on the number of components in the
assembly. The header of the block usually has two rows, each of 6 mm (.25”) high.

10.7.1 Types of Assembly Drawings

Assembly drawings may be presented in orthographic or pictorial views. In these two categories, many variants exist
depending on intended use. Common types of orthographic assembly drawings are outline and section drawings.
Isometric pictorial views are the most common in design documentation. Popular types of isometric assembly views
are outline, exploded and section. Each assembly drawing is given a unique record number.

Iso-assembly Drawings
Isometric assembly drawings provide general graphic description of each component in outline, exploded and section
views. Outline pictorial views show all external components in mating position as shown in Fig. 10.8a. Internal
components are not shown in these views, so they provide only limited information about a unit or product. Exploded
pictorial views show all components in relative position at some distance apart; but aligned to adjacent components.
They provide visual information about all the components in a unit or product and are great aids in assembling,
installations, and maintenance of the products. Fig. 10.8b shows the exploded isometric view of the same product
shown in Fig. 10.8a. All the hidden components in Fig. 10.8a are exposed in Fig. 10.8b. Fig. 10.9 shows an isometric
assembly drawing with a bill of materials and title block, though no revision block is included in the drawing sheet.
Sectioned isometric views show internal components in mating position at the plane defined by a cutting plane line.

a) Outline isometric b) Exploded isometric c) Half section isometric

Fig. 10.8: Isometric assembly drawings
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Fig. 10.8c shows a half section isometric assembly drawing of the product in Fig. 10.8a. They may be broken, half,
or straight section drawings. Sectioned isometric views will in most cases show all the information that exploded
isometric views provide but with the additional benefit of being useful for checking interferences of adjacent
components. Standard parts and shafts are not sectioned but they are drawn with all exterior features shown. Thin
parts, like gaskets are shown solid black. Adjacent parts are hatched at different angles for clarity. A combination of
outline, exploded and section isometric views seems to be the best for design documentation from a technical
viewpoint. Interior components not revealed in the outline or exploded isometric view will show in the section view.
The integrity of the fitting conditions of components can be judged from the section view.

Fig. 10.9: Exploded Isometric assembly with bill of materials

Ortho-assembly Drawings
Outline orthographic assembly views may be considered to be modified orthographic drawings by removing most of
the hidden lines if not all of them. They could best be described as “exterior” orthographic drawings when all hidden
lines are removed. Thus they provide the similar level of information about the outline of mating components as
outline isometric drawings. Fig. 10.10a shows the outline ortho-view of Fig. 11 8a. The hidden lines shown are for
clarity because it may be falsely assumed that all the components in the assembly are all solids without them.

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 a) Outline ortho-view of assembly b) Front ortho-view section
Fig. 10.10: Section assembly drawings

Orthographic section assembly, like isometric section drawings are used for the manufacturing and assembly of
complicated devices, units, or products. They may be half, or straight section drawings, but a straight section is the
most common and provide virtually the same information as isometric section or exploded drawings but without the
visual simplicity of isometric views. In many situations, especially with simple products, one full front section view
may show all the parts in the assembly. Sometimes a standard orthographic front view combined with broken
sections can give complete description of an assembly. Orthographic sections can be used to verify interference or
clashes of adjacent components. Exploded isometric assembly views are not useful in this regard. The same hatching
rules applied to isometric section views are used in orthographic section views.

10.8.0 Checking Drawings

Checking involves examining, comparing, and verifying model data and information. The accuracy of technical data
cannot be overemphasized. Undetected errors carried into the manufacturing and assembly phases of production
create unnecessary expenditures that can tremendously increase the product price and may kill the prospects of
profitability. In small engineering firms, data checking is usually done by the designer or drafter but in large
companies experienced design drafters called checkers do the checking or experienced engineers spend a good part
of their work time checking model and drawing data. Normally, the drafter does the first check, then; the designer
reviews the data for functionality, practicability, economy, manufacturability, etc. Corrections, if needed are done by
the original drafter. The final checker (engineer or supervisor) is expected to discover any remaining error(s). To be
effective, checking should be done systematically.

10.8.1 Assembly Drawing Checklist

In a CAD environment, the solid models of all custom (non-standard) parts are first created in the database. The
assembly models are created by arranging the components in their functional relative positions. Each unit assembly is
normally in a separate file and the final product assembly model is the master product file. Each assembly model
should be checked for interferences and corrected. Animation and simulation of mechanisms and assemblies are great
techniques used in verifying functionality and checking interferences. If the software for these techniques is
available, they should be employed integrity check. The following points are noteworthy:

• Check product and unit assembles for serviceability, economy, assembling, repair, lubrication, etc.
• Check that all assembly and unit (subassembly) drawings have parts list or bill of materials (BOM).
• Traditionally, main castings or forgings are listed first, followed by parts manufactured from material stocks,
and lastly standard parts. However, serial listing makes for better clarity and readability.
• Check for soundness of part design with respect to strength, material, manufacturability, etc.
• Check that fits are economical and practical for mating parts.
• Check moving parts in all possible positions and ensure clearances are proper for functionality.
• Check for clashes of all mating parts in an assembly.
• Check that all custom parts have models and drawings.
• Check that all purchased parts are listed and correctly specified.

10.8.2 Detail Drawing Checklist

After the master product file and unit assembly files have been created, the detail drawing of each part is prepared.
Checking of all part models and detail drawings, should be done to ensure accuracy and completeness. Readability is
of prime importance in drawing preparation and neatness is taken for granted. The following may help as a checklist.

Views
1. Establish needed view types (standard, auxiliary, section, isometric).
2. Place views by projection standard (3rd or 1st Angle Projection).
3. Use the right linestyles and appropriate lineweight or thickness.
4. Ensure proper spacing of views, avoid overcrowding and aim for balanced layout.
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 5. Ensure proper alignment of views.
6. Use same scale for all standard views.
7. Provide local scale for iso-insert, auxiliary, and section views where necessary.

Annotations
1. Establish text font and height and set text color to black for best contrast.
2. Make sure all extension lines go to the right feature.
3. Make sure arrow heads end at the right extension lines or features.
4. Ensure correctness and proper dimension placement.
5. Correct ambiguity and legibility of dimensions.
6. Overall or principal dimensions should be shown.
7. Make sure that there is no repetition or omissions of dimensions for the same feature.
8. Ensure proper and economical tolerances (general and geometric).
9. Ensure proper and economical surface finish.
10. Ensure proper and economic values of fillets and rounds.
11. Make sure screw thread specifications are correct.
12. Make sure local and general notes are correct.
13. Check that notes are in proper order and logically placed.
14. Check that the material specified is proper and economical.

Administrative
1. Provide title block and pertinent information.
2. Provide revision block and information.
3. Ensure correctness of information in title and revision blocks.
4. Ensure drafting standards are used appropriately.

• Check Prints
1. Always print a hard copy of CAD drawing on the appropriate standard sheet for review.
2. As humans, we are prone to errors and oversight.
3. Drawing errors can be discovered and eliminated by careful checking.

Knowledge, thoroughness, and good judgment are vital for catching model and drawing errors. Drawing scale should
be indicated in working drawings. They can be selected using scale factor models. Such models provide tools for
training designers, drafters, architects, and engineers as well as help in planning design documentations. Never accept
or approve a dimensioned drawing without a thorough check of the dimensions and layout of views. All errors
identified must be corrected before releasing the drawing.

10.9 Specification Documents

In some design discipline (e.g. architecture), specification documents are required. Sometimes all the technical
information for a design project cannot be placed in the detail and assembly drawings. They may be explanatory or
required information needed on drawings for proper interpretation or clarification of certain requirements. In such
situations, the information is put together in a specification document. Codes, standards, and regulations must be
adhered to in specification documents. Testing standards and procedures, quality control, surface texture, packaging
requirements, etc. often come in specification documents. Large and complicated design projects such as commercial
buildings, process plants, heavy equipment, etc. may need many pages of specifications for construction, assembly,
packaging, shipping, erection or installation, and storage conditions. Specifications should be clear, concise and
complete and critical information should be highlighted.

10.10 Working Drawing Set

A working drawing set is package of all the detail drawings, assembly drawings, and specification documents, if any,
in a design project. As mentioned in the introduction section, a drawing set should completely communicate the
design intent. A builder of a design should be able to construct the artifact by correctly interpreting the drawings and
faithfully following the specifications in the drawing set. Some CAD packages are able to generate a drawing set for
a project. An example of a drawing set is presented bellow for a unit of 14 components. An outline isometric view
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and exploded isometric view are presented in the same drawing with a bill of materials in Fig. 10.10. Six of the
components are custom parts so there are six detail drawings in the set and are shown in Fig. 10.12 to Fig. 10.17. The
remaining eight standard parts are presented in a single sheet in Fig. 10.18 with their specifications in a table. The
table is called a purchase schedule here. Standard parts may be found in vendor’s catalogs, Machinery’s Handbook,
Fastener’s Handbook, etc.

Fig. 10.11: Exploded assembly drawing

Fig. 10.12: Shaft detail drawing

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Fig. 10.13: Flange detail drawing

Fig. 10.14: Pulley detail drawing

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 Fig. 10.15: Gear detail drawing

Fig. 10.16: Retainer detail drawing

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 Fig. 10.17: Sleeve detail drawing

Fig. 10.18: Schedule of purchase parts

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10.11 SUMMARY
Working drawings are documentation and communication instruments engineering design. They translate design
graphic models into physical products because they are used for constructing or building the designed product. They
should provide a complete description of a product both visually and dimensionally as well as specify standard parts.
Working drawings are considered to be legal documents; hence quality, correctness, and completeness are paramount
in their preparation. Before creating detail and assembly drawings, decisions about the paper size, the front view and
scale must be made. These activities may be referred to as drawing planning or layout design. Orthographic and
isometric drawings constitute the majority of working drawings. In addition to drawing views, annotations are
required in engineering drawings. Annotations are textual information and symbols added to views for explicit
documentation and communication. Textual information includes dimensions, tolerances, notes, and specifications.
There are standard and conventional annotation symbols for geometric tolerancing, surface texture, diameter, radius,
etc. Please refer to Appendix B for more information on these topics.

Working drawings consist of two parts in mechanical design, namely assembly and detail drawings. Assembly
drawings are prepared for mechanisms, devices, units, and products. They show the relative positions of components
when assembled for functional use. An assembly drawing must include all custom and standard components in a
product. Assembly drawings may be ortho-assembly or iso-assembly drawings. All parts in an assembly are listed in
a bill of materials (BOM) or parts list. All non-standard parts in an assembly drawing must have a detail drawing.
Component detail drawings may be ortho-detail or iso-detail drawings. Ortho-detail drawings are annotated multiple
2D views drawings of a single component while iso-detail drawing is an annotated single isometric view drawing of
a component. They contain all specifications and dimensional information necessary for the manufacture and
inspection of the component. The practice in the industry is to prepare one detail drawing for each non-standard
component in an assembly. A detail drawing usually provides more information than the drawing views. The
following information items are quite common:
a) Part name b) Part reference number (PRN) c) Project name
d) Part material e) Surface finish f) Quantity
g) Other specifications

Standard parts in an assembly drawing do not need detail drawings. However, proper specifications for each of them
must be provided. A specification sheet(s) can be used for itemizing standard parts. Specification sheets do not need
to have drawings, but diagrams are helpful.

Written instructions in working drawings are called specifications. In general, specifications may provide technical
requirement information on parts, manufacturing, and assembling processes. They should be clear and easily
understood. The design drafter should add specifications to a working drawing as needed, but the correctness of the
specifications is the responsibility of the designer or engineer.

Most design project produce several drawings. These are put together and delivered to a client as a set. A builder of a
design should be able to construct the artifact by correctly interpreting the drawings and faithfully following the
specifications in the drawing set. The design office usually keeps a copy of a drawing set in vaults or fireproof
cabinets. Backup or archival electronic copies of drawing sets are kept in CAD offices.

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