PRELIMINARY PERIOD

TOPIC #1: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

PSYCHOLOGY came from the Greek word psyche which means the mind or the soul and logos or
study of. On the other hand according to the RA 10029, it is the scientific study of mental processes
and human behavior.
Scientific study- Psychology is a science because it is focused upon the study and
investigation of certain behavior with the application of one or a combination of scientific
methods.
Mental Processes- this includes forms of cognition, or the ways of knowing, which includes
man’s perception, attention and capability to remember, to reason and to solve
problems.
Human behavior- behaviors refers to the action and reactions of the individual when
exposed or placed on a certain situation or environment- attitudes, traits and dispositions
are all human behavior.

AIMS AND GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY

1. To describe behavior
2. To understand behavior
3. To predict behavior
4. To control behavior

HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

Although man is not quite aware that they are applying psychology, the most common
way of explaining behavior during the ancient times is the animism. Essentially, it is the gods and
spirits who were attributed to be the direct cause of events and activities of man. During the Greek
period, Plato, Aristotle and other philosophers had an earliest investigation about human behavior
and mental processes. Before, Psychology is a branch of philosophy until in 1879; Wilhelm Wundt
established the first psychological laboratory which started the psychology as a science.

PIONEERS IN THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology is a branch of philosophy at the ancient time until modern period change the field
as a scientific endeavor.
1. Aristotle is considered as the Father of Psychology because he is the first person to put
writings his explanation pertaining the behavior of man.
2. In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.
He was regarded as the father of modern scientific Psychology.
3. Sigmund Freud is the father of Psychoanalysis who underwent a thorough study of the
unconscious mind.
4. Karl Pearson. Formulated the statistical formula pearson r or the moment product
correlation coefficient.
5. Charles Spearman is recognized as the first systematic psychometrician and father of
classical test theory. He also pioneered the statistical technique called factor analysis.
6. Alfred Binet/ Theopile Simon. Devised the first IQ test for used in French public schools.
7. Ivan Pavlov is a Russian physiologist whose research on physiology of digestion led to the
development of the first experimental model of learning, Classical Conditioning.
8. Edward Lee Thorndike is the father of educational psychology who founded the “The Law
of Effect”, a principle in learning.
9. BF Skinner contributed the system of Operant Conditioning of which in the idea the
organism is in the process of “operating” on the environment, which in ordinary term
means it is bouncing around its world, doing what it does.
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTS IN PSYCHOLOGY

1. Structuralism
Proponents: Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener
Structuralists believed in the importance of the structure of the mind. The mind is structured
through conscious experiences. They used the method of introspection which subjects
were trained to observed and report as accurately as they could their mental processes,
feelings and experiences.

2. Functionalism
Proponents: John Dewey, William James
The group who calls themselves as the functionalists challenged the idea presented by
structuralism stating the importance of the function of the mind.

3. Behaviorism
Proponents: John Watson, BF Skinner, Ivan Pavlov
Behaviorists believed that observable behaviors, not inner experience, was the only
reliable source of information. They chiefly looked for connections between observable
behaviors and stimuli from the environment. Environment has a great influence in one’s
behavior.

4. Psychoanalysis
Proponent: Sigmund Freud
Psychoanalysis was based on the theory that behavior is determined by powerful inner
forces, most of which are buried in the unconscious mind. Past experiences affect the
present behavior of an individual.

5. Gestalt
Proponent: Max Wertheimer
Gestalt literally means ‘to configure” or “to form pattern” Gestalt psychologists believed
that human beings and other animals perceive the external world as an organized pattern.
The familiar saying “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts” expresses an important
principle of the Gestalt movement.

6. Humanism
Proponents: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
Humanists believed that people are innately good. They have free will which strongly
determines their behavior.

MAJOR FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

1. Abnormal Psychology- It looks on the causes, signs and symptoms of abnormal behaviors.
2. Clinical Psychology- The study of diagnosis, treatment and interventions to psychological
disorders.
3. Educational Psychology- it applies the psychological principles and theories in the field of
education.
4. Biological Psychology- this branch of psychology studies how the brain influences
behavior.
5. Industrial Psychology- Applies the psychological principles and research methods in the
workplace.
6. Experimental Psychology- this is the branch of psychology that utilizes scientific methods
to study the brain and behavior.
7. Developmental Psychology- this branch of psychology looks development throughout life.
This includes all aspects of human growth and development from infancy to old age.
8. Personality Psychology- this branch of psychology focused on the patterns of thoughts,
feelings and behavior that make a person unique.
 9. Social Psychology- it seeks to explain and understand an individual’s behavior in the social
context.
10. Forensic Psychology- it applies psychological principles to legal issues and often essential
to court.
11. Psychometrics- It focuses on the methods and techniques for designing psychological
tests. In this field, the administration, scoring and interpretation of psychological tests is
studied.

RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

1. Controlled Experiments
2. Survey Questionnaires
3. Case Studies
4. Correlational Studies

TOPIC #2: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS LIFE SPAN

Development. The pattern of change in human capabilities that begins at conception and
continues throughout the life span. The pattern of development is complex because it is the
product of several processes:
A. Physical development involves change in individual’s biological nature. Changes in
bodily appearance and structure with changes in bodily activities like motor skills all
reflect the developmental role of biological processes.
B. Cognitive development involves changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence and
language.
C. Socio-emotional development involves changes in an individual’s relationships with
other people, changes in emotion and changes in personality.

Nature vs. Nurture. The term nature is often used to refer an organism’s biological inheritance.
The term nurture is often used to refer to an organism’s environmental experiences. The effects of
all the surrounding physical and social conditions. The interaction of nature and nurture, of
genes ad environment, influences every aspect of mind and behavior to a degree. Neither
factor operates alone.

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Prenatal Stage. Marked by rapid growth and differentiation of structures. At 4 weeks, the embryo
is about 0.2 inches long has a recognizable head, arm buds, leg buds and a heart that have
begun beating. At 8 weeks- the end of the embryonic stage- the embryo has features that make
it recognizable as distinctly human, including a nose, mouth, eyes, ears, hands, fingers, feet and
toes. This marks the beginning of the fetal stage. At 16 weeks, the fetus is about 7 inches long and
makes movements that can be detected by the mother. The remainder of the fetal stage involves
extremely rapid growth. At 9 months, the fetus is fully formed ready to be born.
Germinal Stage. Lasts from conception through the second week.
Embryonic Stage. Lasts from the end of the second week through the 8th week.
Fetal Stage. Last from the end of the eight week through birth.

2. Infancy Stage. It is from birth to two weeks and subdivided into period of partunate which covers
the first 15 to 20 minutes after birth, once the umbilical cord has been cut and period of neonate
which covers the rest of the infancy period.

3. Babyhood Stage. This extends from the second week of infancy up to the second year of life.
This period is also known as ‘period of helplessness” because the babies are helpless that adults
usually have to care and do practically almost everything for the baby’s needs. Babies usually
displays motor movements that are reflexive in nature: sucking reflex- newborns start to suck things
that touch their lips; Babinski reflex, where there is fanning out of the baby’s toes when his sole is
touch; Darwinian reflex- causes the baby to grasp tightly objects placed in their hands; Pupillary
reflex- wherein babies close their eyes when there is a bright ray that hits his eyes.

4. Childhood Stage. This stage starts from two years to the onset of puberty and it is divided into
two parts: Early Childhood Stage which extends from two years to six years- it is also called “age
of curiosity because this period children are fond of asking questions as a sign of exploring their
environment; Late Childhood Stage which extends from six years up to the onset of puberty
sometimes between eleven to twelve years of age- this stage is labelled as the “gang stage” since
the major concern of children by this time is their gang mates and their desire for acceptance
and belongingness.

5. Puberty Stage. This stage overlaps the end of childhood and it also touches the early part of
adolescence. It is characterized by rapid changes in height, weight and sexual maturation which
is called growth spurt.

6. Adolescence Stage. Psychologist G. Stanley Hall saw this period as storm and stress because at
this stage, adolescents must face many changes, and these experiences may change their self-
concept and attitudes considerably. Adolescence came from the Latin verb “adolescere”
meaning to grow into maturity. Since most adolescents spend more time outside the home with
their peer group, it is understandable that there is increased peer group influence on the
adolescence speech, attitude, interests, and even in their appearance and behavior more than
their family members have.

7. Adulthood Stage. It divided into two parts namely early adulthood stage which extends from 18
to 40 years of age which young adults enter a period of adjustments to new patterns of life and
to new social expectations; as such, they now establish a new lifestyle, living independently from
their parents and pursuing immediate goals of their own choice. In middle adulthood stage, it
extends from 40 to 60 years of age which is usually the most creative season in the life span.
However, during this time when menopause among women which is characterized by loss of
reproductive capacity. While in men, climacteric (andropause) takes place which is the cessation
in reproductive capacity or decline in active functioning of the sex organ.

8. Old Age Stage. It extends from 60 onwards. The stage of senescence which is characterized by
some physical and psychological changes. Since it is a period of decline, it is referred to as the
“age of senility”.

THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

JEAN PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years). While infants use their senses and motor behaviors
rather than thinking to learn about their world. They learn on how to gather information
from their different senses and to show goal directed behavior. It is characterized by a lack
of fully developed object permanence, or realization that objects continue to exist even
though they are not presently sensed.
2. Pre- operational Stage (2 to 7 years). Children at this age use symbols like words to
represent people and object. They can already understand that objects continue to be
the same even if its form changed. They can also imitate actions and learn how to do
numbers and understand relationships between two events. However, children at this age
have some limitations in thought. They focus on one aspect of a situation and fail to
consider other important aspects. In addition, children are still egocentric at this stage.
 They don’t consider the point of view of others, they only believe in what they perceive
and see around them.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 10 years). Children are no longer egocentric. At this
point, they can put themselves into the shoes of others and can make moral judgments.
Children acquire the concept of conservation which is the ability to recognize that
substance can be conserved at different dimensions and different times. They also use
logic regarding tangible or concrete objects but not abstract ones.
4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years and older). Children at this stage can think like a
scientist. They can already solve problems through logical reasoning, even theoretically
and abstractly. They consider all available data before they conclude.

ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL OF DEVELOPMENT

Stage Basic Conflict Outcome

Infancy (birth Trust vs. Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide
to 18 months) Mistrust reliability, care and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.

Early Autonomy vs. Children need to develop a sense of personal control over
childhood (2 Shame and physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to
to 3 years) Doubt feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and
doubt.

Preschool (3 Initiative vs. Children need to begin asserting control and power over the
to 5 years) Guilt environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose.
Children who try to exert too much power experience
disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.

School Age Industry vs. Children need to cope with new social and academic
(6 to 7 years) Inferiority demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while
failure results in feeling of inferiority.

Adolescence Identity vs. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity.
(12 to 18 Role Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure
years) Confusion leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.

Young Intimacy vs. Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with
Adulthood Isolation other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while
(19 to 40 failure results in loneliness and isolation.
years)
Middle Generativity Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them,
Adulthood vs. Stagnation often by having children or creating a positive change that
(40 to 65 benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness
years) and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.

Old Age (65 Integrity vs. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of
to death) Despair fulfilment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom,
while failure results in regret, bitterness and despair.

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Level 1: Pre Conventional Morality (Ages 2- 7). Moral reasoning based on immediate
consequences.

Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment. I do what I am told so I will not be punished.

Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange. I do what is expected of me in order to gain rewards. This
is the “I’ll scratch your back if you scratch mine” phase, a time of simple exchange and reciprocity.
Level 2: Conventional Morality (Ages 7- 12). Moral reasoning based on conformity to social rules
and expectations.

Stage 3: Good Boy/ Good Girl. I will do what is good. I want to please others.
Stage 4: Law and Order. I will obey the law because I wish to do my duty and help maintain social
orders.

Level 3: Post Conventional Morality (Ages 12 and above). Moral reasoning based on principles
and ethical ideas.

Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights. My interest is achieving the greatest good for the
largest number of people and try to guard the basic rights of all persons.
Stage 6: Universal Principles. I will try to follow the laws, where in some cases where I believe they
are not right I will follow my conscience because laws that violate universal ethical principles are
wrong.

TOPIC #3: BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system controls all our bodily activities and behavioral responses. It is made up
mainly of neurons or nerve cells which numbers to about one hundred billion. It is comprises of two
main divisions:

1. The Central Nervous System – This consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
2. The Peripheral Nervous System – composes all the nerve fibers that connect the receptors
to the central nervous system and which further connects the central nervous system to
the effectors.

THE NEURONS
Neurons or nerve cells are the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system and they
are specialized for processing information. Glial cells on the other hand, provide support and
nutritional benefits to the nervous system. Its well defined parts are:
1. The cell body, part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, which directs the manufacture
of substances that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance.
2. Dendrites, Braches of neurons that receive and orient information toward the cell body.
Most neurons have numerous dendrites.
3. Axon, the part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body to other
cells; each neuron has only one axon.
4. Myelin Sheath. A layer of fat cells that encases and insulate the axons, thus speeding up
the transmission of nerve impulses.

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

It is basically made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is house in the skull and the spinal
cord is found in the vertebral column. The central nervous system serves as the integrating
mechanism of the entire human body.

The Brain
This is the master organ of our body and is the busiest part of the body. It controls and directs all
activities in the nervous system. As the master organ, the brain is responsible for the integration of
the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. It also receives nerve impulses or
message through the spinal cord. The brain has three major divisions:
1. Forebrain the highest level of the brain. Key structures in the forebrain are the limbic system,
thalamus, basal ganglia, hypothalamus and cerebral cortex.
A. Cerebral Cortex (cerebrum) is the most complex and largest part of the brain. it is
considered as the “seat of consciousness” and is responsible for higher mental activities
like endless thinking and reasoning, memory and understanding and many other
cognitive functioning. It consists of the right cerebral hemisphere which controls the
left side of the body and the left cerebral hemisphere which controls the right side of
the body.
Each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is subdivided into four regions- the frontal lobe,
occipital lobe, temporal lobe and parietal lobe.
A.1. Frontal lobe. The part of the cerebral cortex just behind the forehead that is
involved in the control of muscles, intelligence and personality.
A.2. Occipital lobe. The part of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head that is
involved in vision.
A.3. Temporal lobe. The portion of the cerebral cortex just above the ears that is
involved in hearing, language processing and memory.
A.4. Parietal lobe. The area of the cerebral cortex at the top of the head that is involved
in registering spatial location, attention and motor control.

B. Thalamus is found right on the top of the midbrain. This serves a relay center of the
impulses being sent to the brain areas.
C. Hypothalamus is located underneath the thalamus which keeps balance of different
body systems mainly because of its close involvement in the releasing of hormones. It
is considered as the seat of emotion which maintains homeostasis by regulating some
involuntary activities like body temperature, thirst and sexual drives.
D. Limbic System is made up of complex structures located around the thalamus just
beneath the cerebrum. It also mediates our emotional responses. Also found here of
the hippocampus (SEA HORSE shape) which is responsible in changing short term
memories into long term memories. The amygdala (ALMOND shape) is another
important part of the limbic system which is believed to cause aggressive behavior
among human beings and animals.
E. Basal Ganglia. Large clusters of neurons, located above the thalamus and under the
cerebral cortex that control and coordinate voluntary movement.

2. Midbrain serves as the bridge between the hindbrain and the forebrain. It is responsible in
linking the sensory and motor pathways between the upper and lower parts of the nervous
system. It is composed of reticular formation and brain stem.
A. Reticular formation. Consists of a diffuse collection of neurons involved in stereotypical
behaviors, such as walking, sleeping, or turning to attend to a sudden noise.
B. Brain Stem. The region of the brain that includes most of the hindbrain (excluding the
cerebellum) and the midbrain.

3. Hindbrain is composed of the Pons, Medulla oblongata and the Cerebellum.

A. Pons is located in front of the cerebellum.
B. Medulla oblongata regulates the involuntary activities like heartbeat, rate of breathing
or respiration, swallowing, and movements of the stomach and intestine.
C. Cerebellum is also called the “little brain”. It is involved in the coordination of voluntary
motor activities. It maintains our body balance and posture. It enables us to learn and
develop our habits and skills.

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

This is the second major division of the nervous system. It is subdivided into two namely:
A. Somatic System: these nerves resemble the “telephone cables” that are scattered all
over the body. These nerves have sensory and motor function, which make it possible
for the brain and spinal cord to communicate with the body.

B. Autonomic Nervous System is responsible for involuntary movements within the body.
B.1. Sympathetic System activates or speeds up life activities. Sympathetic activation
leads to increase heartbeat and respiration, and profuse sweating.

B.2. Parasympathetic System slows down life activities. Thus, it restores the body- stored
energy which calms down the body after resolving a stressful and emergency situation.