NOTE 1

Social Psychology (UNIT 1)

What is Psychology?
Psychology is the scientific study and practical application of observable behavior and mental
processes of organisms. It is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes.
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, attitudes,
beliefs and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of
others.
The word psychology comes from the Greek words psyche (mind or soul) and logia
(study). Psychology is usually described as beginning with the opening of an experimental lab by
Wilhelm Wundt in 1879. It emerged as a logical progression from attempts to use science to
answer questions about human nature.

Why is Psychology a science?

It attempts asks and answers questions using observable behavior and what can be determined as
mental processes of the subject. Psychologists observe and record how people and other animals
relate to one another and to the environment. They look for patterns that will help them
understand and predict behaviour, and they use scientific methods to test their ideas. Through
such studies, psychologists have learned much that can help people fulfill their potential as
human beings and increase understanding between individuals, groups, nations, and cultures. 

Approaches to Psychology
Theoretical approaches to psychology;
1. Behaviourist
2. Psychodynamic
3. Humanistic
4. Cognitive
5. Social Constructionist

Behaviourist Approach by Ivan Pavlov & B.F Skinner

Behaviourist approach was founded by John B. Watson (1913), and embraced and extended by
Edward Thorndike, and later B.F. Skinner. Behaviourists emphasize the relationship between the
environment surrounding a person and how it affects a person’s behaviour. The essence of the
behavioural approach is the assumption that all behaviour is learned and that when we are born
we are like a blank slate. We become what we become as a result of forming Stimulus–
Response or RS units of behavior in reaction to the environment. Behaviour is the result of
learned associations between stimuli and responses to them. The main theories are Classical
(Pavlov) and Operant (Skinner) conditioning.
Ivan Pavlov’s Theory

Classical conditioning (Pavlov, 1890): Classical conditioning is a process of behaviour by

which a subject comes to respond in a desired manner. Behaviour is the result of learned
associations between stimuli and response.
Pavlov trained dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell. The dog had associated the bell ringing
with the food. Dogs have a natural reflex response to salivate when they see food, Pavlov rang a
bell when the dogs were given food and after several repetitions of this action, the dogs began to
salivate whenever they heard the bell, even when there was not any food there. In Pavlov’s
famous experiments with dogs he paired a neutral STIMULUS - a bell (called the conditioned
stimulus) with food (this is called the unconditioned stimulus). The bell was rung at the same
time as the food was presented. Eventually presentation of the bell on its own came to produce
the same response (salivation) that food had elicited. The salivation to the sound of the bell was
called the conditioned response whereas the salivation to food was called the unconditioned
response.

B.F Skinner’s Theory

Operant conditioning (Skinner, 1989) took the notion of conditioned reflexes. Operant
conditioning is the process of behavioral modification in which the likelihood of a specific
behaviour is increased/decreased through positive or negative reinforcement each time the
behaviour is exhibited. Is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for
behavior. An association is made between a behavior and consequences.

One of his best known inventions is the Skinner box. A hungry rat is placed in a semi-
soundproof box. For several days bits of food are occasionally delivered into a tray by an
automatic dispenser. The rat soon goes to the tray immediately upon hearing the sound of the
dispenser. A small horizontal section of a lever protruding from the wall has been resting in its
lowest position, but it is now raised slightly so that when the rat touches it, it moves downward.
In doing so it closes an electric circuit and operates the food dispenser. Immediately after eating
the delivered food the rat begins to press the lever fairly rapidly. The behavior has been
strengthened or reinforced by a single consequence. The rat
was not "trying" to do anything when it first touched the lever and it did not learn
from "errors."  To a hungry rat, food is a natural reinforcer, but the reinforcer in this example is
the sound of the food dispenser, which was conditioned as a reinforcer when it was repeatedly
followed by the delivery of food before the lever was pressed. Operant conditioning forms an
association between a behavior and a consequence. (It is also called Response-Stimulus or RS
conditioning because it forms an association between the animal's response [behavior] and the
stimulus that follows consequence.
 The Psychodynamic/Psychoanalysis Approach by Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalysis was founded during the late 1800's and early 1900's by the Austrian doctor
Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalysis was based on the theory that behaviour is determined by
powerful inner forces, most of which are buried in the unconscious mind.
He believed that the unconscious is the source of our motivations, whether they be simple desires
for food or sex, neurotic compulsions, or the motives of an artist or scientist.
Our mind has three parts: conscious, unconscious and preconscious.
Our personality has three components: id, ego & superego.
Conscious: thoughts and perceptions
Preconscious: available to consciousness, e.g. memories and stored knowledge
Unconscious: wishes and desires formed in childhood, biological urges. Determines most of
behaviour
Psychoanalysis emphasized the role of unconscious forces in shaping behavior
1. id: It is the pool of biological drive that arises from our needs for food, water, warmth,
sexual gratification, pleasure or avoidance of pain. It is called pleasure principle.
2. ego: The ego gives guidance to the id. It operates according to the reality principles. Most
develops in childhood, rational.
3. superego: The superego is the component of personality that represent the ideal and
moral standard of society. It is called the conscience. It places restrictions on behaviour.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud noted that, at different times in our lives, different parts of our skin give us greatest
pleasure. Freud had the makings of a psychosexual stage theory.
1. Oral (0–18 months): The focus of pleasure is, of course, the mouth. Sucking and biting
are favorite activities.
2. Anal (18 months–3 years): The focus of pleasure is the anus. Holding it in and letting it
go are greatly enjoyed.
3. Phallic (3–6 years): The focus of pleasure is the genitalia. Masturbation is common.
4. Latent (6 yrs–puberty): During this stage, Freud believed that the sexual impulse was
suppressed in the service of learning
5. Genital (puberty onwards): It represents the resurgence of the sex drive in adolescence,
and the more specific focusing of pleasure in sexual intercourse
6. At each stage, libido is focused on different part of body.
 Humanistic Approach

It was developed in the 1950s by Abraham Maslow who formulated a hierarchy of human needs.
The goal of humanistic psychology is to help people function effectively and fulfill their own
unique potential. Humanistic psychologists argue that people should strive to reach their full
potential. This is an approach in Psychology which emphasizes the whole person and the ability
of each individual to change.
Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-
actualize - i.e. to fulfill one's potential and achieve the highest level of 'human-beingness' we can.
It is the theory of self concept, ideal self and fully functioning person

Self actualization: It is the quest of reaching one's full potential as a person.

Esteem needs: Esteem needs are those related to self respect and recognition.
Love and belongings: Human s have a desire to belong to groups, we need to feel loved by
others, to be accepted by others.
Safety needs: one's attention turns to safety and security in order to be free from the threat of
physical and emotional harm.
Physiological needs: They are the basic needs that we need to sustain life. These feelings
motivate us to alleviate them as soon as possible to establish homeostatic, once they are
alleviated, we may think about other things.

Cognitive approach to psychology by Jean Piaget

The main concern of Cognitive Psychology is how information received from our senses is
processed by the Brain and how this processing directs how we behave.
Cognitive psychology investigates memory, language, perception, and problem solving.
Stages in Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage (Infancy): Intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity
Pre-operational stage (Toddler and early childhood)-Intelligence is demonstrated through the
use of symbols, some language, imagination and memory.
Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence) - Intelligence is demonstrated
through logical and systematic thought processes.
Formal Operational Stage (Adolescence and adulthood) - Intelligence is demonstrated
through logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts.

Social Constructionist

Social constructivist believes that we construct our view of the world through social interaction.
They believe our constructions affect our actions.
It involves looking at the ways social phenomena are created, institutionalized, and made into
tradition by humans.

Research Methods in Psychology

1. Experimental research
2. Survey questionnaire
3. Longitudinal studies
4. Naturalistic observation
5. Qualitative descriptive method

Experimental Research Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt was a German psychologist, generally

acknowledged as a founder of experimental psychology. This method of research relies on the
application of the scientific method to understand behavior. Experimentation helps a
psychologist discover or confirm cause-and-effect relationships in behaviour. In a typical
experiment, the researcher divides subjects at random into two groups. One group is called the
experimental group and the other the control group.

Survey Questionnaire: It is also called a public opinion poll is a study that measures people's
attitudes and activities by asking the people themselves. Surveys are also conducted over the
phone or through e-mail. The researcher may interview participants personally or post
questionnaires to them. If the psychologist wishes to form general conclusions, the survey must
collect responses from a representative sample of individuals

Longitudinal Studies
A longitudinal study is a research method which observes a particular population over time. It is
a developmental research strategy that involves testing an age group repeatedly over many years.

Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation involves watching the behaviour of human beings and other animals in
their natural environment. For example, a researcher might study the activities of chimpanzees in
the wild. The psychologist looks for cause-and-effect relationships between events and for broad
patterns of behaviour. 
 Qualitative and Descriptive Method
Qualitative research is descriptive research that is focused on observing and describing events
as they occur, with the goal of capturing all of the richness of everyday behavior and with the
hope of discovering and understanding phenomena that might have been missed.

Ethics in Psychology

1. Informed consent: The researcher must outline to the participants what the research is
about, and then ask their consent (i.e. permission) to take part
2. Confidentiality: Participants, and the data gained from them must be kept anonymous
unless they give their full consent. No names must be used in a research report
3. Competence: Psychologists maintain knowledge of relevant scientific and professional
information related to the services they render. They make use of appropriate
professional resources, also appropriate use of scientific, professional, technical
4. Record keeping: Psychologists create, and to the extent the records are under their
control, maintain, disseminate, store, retain, and dispose of records and data relating to
their professional and scientific work.
5. Integrity: Psychologists seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in the
science, teaching, and practice of psychology. They are honest, fair, and respectful of
others.