JOHN B.

WATSON (WORKBOOK)

1. What is behaviorism?

According to Watson, Behaviorism was the science of observable behavior. Only behavior that
could be observed, recorded and measured was of any real value for the study of humans or animals.
Watson's thinking was significantly influenced by the earlier classical conditioning experiments of
Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov and his now infamous dogs.

2. Behaviorism rejects studying consciousness, why?

Metaphysical behaviorism denies the existence of consciousness or mental events. The object of
psychological science is exclusively seen in observable behavior.

3. Watson considers language as a manipulative habit, why?

Watson applied his views to all parts of human behavior including language and memory. He
believed language to be a "manipulative habit." This term was meant to describe the human ability to
manipulate the sounds made with the larynx. He believed that language and all behavior is conditioned
(taught) in this case through imitation.

4. Explain the notion of conditioning emotions.

Watson was interested in the conditioning of emotions. Of course, behaviorism putting an

emphasis on people's external behaviors, emotions were considered as mere physical responses.

5. What are the three (3) unlearned emotional reactions? Expound on each reaction.

Fear: evoked by only two stimuli that are unconditioned—a sudden noise or the loss of (physical)
support.

Rage: an innate response to the body movement of the child being constrained. If a very young child is
held in a way that she cannot move at all, then she will begin to scream and stiffen her body. Later this
reaction is applied to different situations.

Love: an automatic response from infants when tickled, patted, or stroked lightly. The infant responds
with smiles, laughs, and other affectionate responses.

6. Why is Watson considered the father of behavior analysis of child development?

Watson was a pioneering psychologist who played an important role in developing behaviorism.
Watson believed that psychology should primarily be scientific observable behavior. He is remembered
for his research on the conditioning process.

7. Narrate the “little Albert” experiment?

The goal of the experiment was to show how principles of, at the time recently discovered,
classical conditioning could be applied to condition fear of a white rat into "Little Albert", a 9-month-
oldboy. Watson and Rayner conditioned "Little Albert" by clanging an iron rod when a white rat was
presented. First, they presented to the boy a white rat and observed that he was not afraid of it.
 Second, they presented him with a white rat and then clanged an iron rod. "Little Albert"
responded by crying. This second presentation was repeated several times. Finally, Watson and Rayner
presented the white rat by itself and the boy showed fear. Later, in an attempt to see if the fear
transferred to other objects, Watson presented Albert with a rabbit, a dog, and a fur coat. He cried at
the sight of all of them. This study demonstrated how emotions could become conditioned responses.
As the story of "Little Albert" has made the rounds, inaccuracies and inconsistencies have crept in, some
of them even due to Watson himself. Analyses of Watson's film footage of Albert suggest that the infant
was mentally and developmentally disabled. An ethical problem of this study is that Watson and Rayner
did not unconditional "Little Albert".

8. What are the limitations of conditioning paradigm?

The conditioning paradigm has certain limitations. Researchers have had a hard time
conditioning infant that are just a few months old. This might be because they have not yet developed
what Piaget calls "primary circular reactions". Because they cannot coordinate sensory motor actions,
they cannot learn to make different associations between their motoric behaviors and the environment.

9. What is the main difference between Watson and Adler?

Adler called his theory Individual Psychology because he believed that people were unique and
that no theory created before his applied to all people. While Watson is best known for taking his theory
of behaviorism and applying it to child development. He believed strongly that a child's environment is
the factor that shapes behaviors over their genetic makeup or natural temperament.
 ERIC FROMM (WORKBOOK)

1. In 500 words, what is humanistic psychology?

Fromm had a major influence on humanistic psychology. He believed life was a contradiction
since humans are both part of nature and separate from it Fromm this conflict arises basic existential
needs, including relatedness, creativity, rootedness, identity, and a frame of orientation, according to
Fromm. Humanistic psychology is a perspective that emphasizes looking at the whole individual and
stresses concepts such as free will, self-efficacy, and self-actualization. Rather than concentrating on
dysfunction, humanistic psychology strives to help people fulfill their potential and maximize their well-
being. Humanistic psychology also often referred to as humanism emerged during the 1960s as a
reaction to the psychoanalysis and behaviorism that dominated psychology at the time. Psychoanalysis
was focused on understanding the unconscious motivations that drive behavior while behaviorism
studied the conditioning processes that produce behavior. Humanist thinkers felt that both
psychoanalysis and behaviorism were too pessimistic, either focusing on the most tragic of emotions or
failing to take into account the role of personal choice. However, it is not necessary to think of these
three schools of thought as competing elements. Each branch of psychology has contributed to our
understanding of the human mind and behavior. Humanistic psychology added yet another dimension
that takes a more holistic view of the individual. As it developed, humanistic psychology focused on each
individual's potential and stressed the importance of growth and self-actualization. The fundamental
belief of humanistic psychology is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems
result from deviations from this natural tendency. Humanism also suggests that people possess personal
agency and that they are motivated to use this free will to pursue things that will help them achieve
their full potential as human beings. This need for fulfillment and personal growth is a key motivator of
all behavior. People are continually looking for new ways to grow, to become better, to learn new
things, and to experience psychological growth and self-actualization. His humanistic psychoanalysis
assumes that humanity’s separation from the natural world has produced feelings of loneliness and
isolation, a condition called basic anxiety. For Erich Fromm, everybody's main goal in life is to become
stronger, freer, more noble – essentially, the person you were meant to be. This is representative of his
humanistic perspective, which was revolutionary for such an important figure in psychology at the time.

2. What are human needs?

The essential human needs, according to Fromm, are relatedness, rootedness, unity, a sense of
identity, excitement and stimulation, reflectance, transcendence, and a frame of orientation.

3. What is relatedness?

The drive for union with another person or other person.

4. What is transcendence?

Defined as the urge to rise above a passive and accidental existence and into “the realm of
purposefulness and freedom”.
5. What is rootedness?

The need to establish roots or to feel at home again in the world.

6. According to the theoretical framework of Fromm, what is sense of identity?

The capacity to be aware of ourselves as a separate entity.

7. According to the theoretical framework of Fromm, what is frame of orientation?

Being split off from nature, humans need a road map, a frame of orientation, to make their way
through the world.

8. What is the concept of burden of freedom?

The concept of burden of freedom is Mechanisms of escape (Authoritarianism, Destructiveness,

and Conformity) and Positive Freedom.
 ALBERT BANDURA (WORKBOOK)

1. In 500 words, what is social cognitive theory?

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) describes the influence of individual experiences, the actions of
others, and environmental factors on individual health behaviors. SCT provides opportunities for social
support through instilling expectations, self-efficacy, and using observational learning and other
reinforcements to achieve behavior change. The SCT can be applied as a theoretical framework in
different settings and populations. It is frequently used to guide behavior change interventions. It may
be particularly useful in rural communities for examining how individuals interact with their
surroundings. The SCT can be used to understand the influence of social determinants of health and a
person's past experiences on behavior change.

In social cognitive theory, people are neither driven by inner forces nor automatically shaped
and controlled by the environment. As we have already seen, they function as contributors to their own
motivation, behavior, and development within a network of reciprocally interacting influences. Persons
are characterized within this theoretical perspective in terms of a number of basic capabilities, to which
we turn next.

Social cognitive theory synthesizes concepts and processes from cognitive, behavioristic, and
emotional models of behavior change, so it can be readily applied to nutritional intervention for disease
prevention and management. A basic premise is that people learn not only through their own
experiences, but also by observing the actions of others and the results of those actions. Key constructs
of social cognitive theory that are relevant to nutritional intervention include observational learning,
reinforcement, self-control, and self-efficacy.

Principles of behavior modification, which have often been used to promote dietary change, are
derived from social cognitive theory. Some elements of behavioral dietary interventions based on social
cognitive theory constructs of self-control, reinforcement, and self-efficacy include goalsetting, self-
monitoring and behavioral contracting.

Self-efficacy, or a person's confidence in his or her ability to take action and to persist in that
action despite obstacles or challenges, seems to be especially important for influencing health behavior
and dietary change efforts. Health providers can make deliberate efforts to increase patients’ self-
efficacy using three types of strategies: (1) setting small, incremental, and achievable goals; (2) using
formalized behavioral contracting to establish goals and specify rewards; and (3) monitoring and
reinforcement, including patient self-monitoring by keeping records. In group nutrition programs, it is
possible to easily incorporate activities such as cooking demonstrations, problem-solving discussions,
and self-monitoring that are rooted in social cognitive theory.

The key social cognitive theory construct of reciprocal determinism means that a person can be
both an agent for change and a responder to change. Thus, changes in the environment, the examples
of role models, and reinforcements can be used to promote healthier behavior.

Another important tenet with respect to behavioral and learning is SCT's emphasis that
individuals learn from one another via observation, imitation and modeling; effective models evoke
trust, admiration and respect from the observer, and they do not appear to represent a level of behavior
that observers are unable to visualize attaining for themselves. Thus, a change in efficacy expectations
through vicarious experience may be affected by encouraging an individual to believe something akin to
the following: “if she can do it, so can I”. SCT has been critiqued for being too comprehensive in its
formulation, making for difficulty in operationalizing and evaluating the theory in its entirety (Munro et
al., 2007). Moreover, some researchers using SCT as a theoretical basis have been criticized for using
only one or two concepts from the theory to explain behavioral outcomes (Baranowski et al., 2002).

2. Describe learning according to the theoretical framework of Bandura.

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the
behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.

Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction
between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influence. The component processes underlying
observational learning are: (1) Attention, including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence,
complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level,
perceptual set, past reinforcement), (2) Retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive organization,
symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal), (3) Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-
observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and (4) Motivation, including external, vicarious and
self-reinforcement.

3. What is a triadic reciprocal determinism? Expound.

Triadic reciprocity (also known as triadic reciprocity and triadic reciprocal determinism) is a
behavioral and personality model used in social cognitive theory which was developed by Albert
Bandura. He proposed that three core components make up individual personality: the environment,
the individual, and the behavior itself. According to this theory, an individual's behavior influences and is
influenced by both the social world and personal characteristics.

This model suggests that these three components are continually interacting with one another.
Just as the environment exerts an influence on individual behavior, a person's actions also play a part in
influencing the environment.

a. Behavior:

Reciprocal determinism is the idea that behavior is controlled or determined by the

individual, through cognitive processes, and by the environment, through external social
stimulus events. So in the case of our troubled student, his dislike of school is being
reinforced (and perhaps magnified) by the actions of his teachers and classmates, which
he's perpetuating by continuing to act out.

b. Environment:

The environmental component is made up of the physical surroundings around the

individual that contain potentially reinforcing stimuli, including people who are present
(or absent). The environment influences the intensity and frequency of the behavior,
just as the behavior itself can have an impact on the environment.
 c. Individual:

The individual component includes all the characteristics that have been rewarded in
the past. Personality and cognitive factors play an important part in how a person
behaves, including all of the individual's expectations, beliefs, and unique personality
characteristics.

4. What is self-efficacy? Expound.

Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s effectiveness in performing specific tasks. Albert Bandura’s
theory of self-efficacy has important implications for motivation. The self-efficacy theory holds is that
people are likely to engage in activities to the extent that they perceive themselves to be competent. 4
sources of self-efficacy:

a. Performance Accomplishments:

Personal assessment information that is based on an individual’s accomplishments.

Previous successes raise mastery expectations, while repeated failures lower them.

b. Vicarious Experiences:

Gained by observing others perform activities successfully. This is often referred to as

modeling, and it can generate expectations in observers that they can improve their
performance by learning from what they have observed.

c. Social Persuasion:

Activities where people are led, through suggestion, into believing that they can cope
successfully with specific tasks. Coaching and giving evaluative feedback on performance
are common types of social persuasion.

d. Physiological and Emotional States:

The individual’s physiological or emotional states influence self-efficacy judgments

concerning specific tasks. Emotional reactions to such tasks (e.g., anxiety) can lead to
negative judgments of one’s ability to complete the tasks.

5. What is effective efficacy? Expound.

Self-efficacy is essentially the belief in your own ability to control your own behavior, emotions,
and motivations. It is your belief in your ability to solve a problem, reach a goal, complete a task, and
achieve what you set out to do. Your sense of self-efficacy has a major influence on how you approach
challenges and goals. When confronted with a challenge, do you believe that you can succeed or are you
convinced that you will fail? People with strong self-efficacy are those who believe that they can
perform well. These people are more likely to view challenges as something to be mastered rather than
avoided.
6. What is self-regulation according to the framework of Bandura?

Self-regulation operates through a set of psychological subfunctions that must be developed

and mobilized for self-directed change (Bandura, 1986). Neither intention nor desire alone has much
effect if people lack the capability for exercising influence over their own motivation and behavior
(Bandura & Simon, 1977).

Self-regulatory system lies at the very heart of causal processes. They not only mediate the
effects of most external influences but provide the very basis for purpose flection. Self-regulation
operates through three major subfunctions as a self-governing system. The first subfunction involves
monitoring one's performances. Self-monitoring provides the information needed for setting
performances standards and for evaluating one's progress toward them. In the second subfunction,
individuals evaluate their behavior against their standards, situational circumstances and valuation of
the activities. The referential comparisons set the occasion for the third subfunction, affective self-
reactions to one's judged performances. Anticipatory self-sanctions not only serve as guides and
motivators of behavior but affect satisfaction people derive from what they do.

7. What is a dysfunctional behavior?

The term dysfunctional is defined as "abnormal or impaired functioning" on the part of an

individual person, between people in any sort of relationship, or amongst members of a family. Poor
functioning refers to both behavior and relationships that aren't working and have one or more
negative, unhealthy aspects to them, such as poor communication or frequent conflict.

This is a term used often by mental health professionals for interactions between people and is
often used to describe any relationship in which there are significant problems or struggles.
Dysfunctional relationships or situations are often the impetus for getting help in psychotherapy.

8. What is the ultimate goal of social cognitive therapy?

It is frequently used to guide behavior change interventions. It may be particularly useful in rural
communities for examining how individuals interact with their surroundings. The SCT can be used to
understand the influence of social determinants of health and a person's past experiences on behavior
change.

9. Expound the notion of free choice over determinism?

The determinist approach proposes that all behavior has a cause and is thus predictable. Free
will is an illusion, and our behavior is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no
control.

Psychologists who take the free will view suggest that determinism removes freedom and
dignity and devalues human behavior. By creating general laws of behavior, deterministic psychology
underestimates the uniqueness of human beings and their freedom to choose their own destiny. There
are important implications for taking either side in this debate. Deterministic explanations for behavior
reduce individual responsibility. A person arrested for a violent attack for example might plead that they
were not responsible for their behavior – it was due to their upbringing, a bang on the head they
received earlier in life, recent relationship stresses, or a psychiatric problem. In other words, their
behavior was determined.
10. Expound the difference between Watson and Bandura.

WATSON BANDURA

-Founded behaviorism -Social Learning Theory

-Classical Conditioning -Observational learning
-Psychology must be completely objective & rule -Social Learning Theorist -Behavior is learned
out all subjective data/experiences through imitation
-Little Albert Experiment (with rats & sound) -Modeling experiment with Bobo the doll
-Conditioned Emotional Responses Believed that -Reciprocal Determinism
emotions could be associated with neutral stimulus
-Methodology of psychology becomes more
objective
-Moved field beyond consciousness
 JULIAN ROTTER (WORKBOOK)

1. What is social learning theory?

According to Rotter, social learning theory assumes that the unit of investigation for the study of
personality is the interaction between the individual and their meaningful environment.

2. What is an environment? Expound.

The field defines the term environment broadly, encompassing natural environments, social
settings, built environments, learning environments, and informational environments.

3. What is cognition according to the framework of Rotter?

Rotter holds that people’s cognitions, past histories, and expectations of the future are keys to
predicting behavior. In this respect, he differs from Skinner, who believed that reinforcement ultimately
stems from the environment. Cognition enables different people to see the same situation differently
and to place different values on reinforcement that follows their behavior.

4. What is motivation? Expound.

Psychologists define motivation as the process by which activities are started, directed, and
sustained so that certain needs are met. Needs can be psychological (for example, needing validation) or
physical (for example, needing food). The idea is that motivation is what guides us to accomplish a goal.

There are two main types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation comes from
within the individual. When you are intrinsically motivated, you do something for personal gratification.
An example of intrinsic motivation is completing a puzzle because you find it challenging. In contrast,
extrinsic motivation is when you do something to get a reward or avoid a punishment. In this case, the
motivation for your behavior comes from something outside of yourself, such as an award or a good
grade.

5. What is the concept of Rotter when it comes to reinforcement?

Reinforcement value refers to the importance or preference of a particular reinforcement for an

individual. It is the preference a person attaches to any reinforcement when the probabilities for the
occurrence of a number of different reinforcements are all equal. First, the individual’s perception
contributes to the positive or negative value of an event. Rotter calls this perception internal
reinforcement and distinguishes it from external reinforcement, which refers to events, conditions, or
actions on which one’s society or culture places a value.

6. Expound the idea of locus of control?

Rotter's theory emphasizes the goal-directed nature of social behavior: people engage in
activities in order to satisfy their psychological needs. One of the most important expectations that a
person develops, therefore, concerns the source of reinforcements: whether they are a function of his
or her own actions, or rather dependent on the acts of other people. Locus of control amounts to the
person's perception of the causal relation between behavior and reinforcement (Rotter, 1966; Phares,
1976, 1978).
 People with internal locus of control view reinforcements as dependent on their own behaviors.
By contrast, people with external locus of control view their own behaviors as ineffective, but rather
matters of luck, chance, fate, or the actions of powerful others; or, they may view reinforcements as
simply unpredictable.

According to Rotter, there are consistent individual differences in locus of control that can be
measured by a personality test similar to the questionnaires used to measure traits. Conceptually,
however, locus of control is a cognitive rather than a behavioral disposition. Although it is highly
generalized by definition, and thus displays consistency over different situations, locus of control can
change from internal to external or the reverse in accordance with the experiences of the Individual.

7. Using the framework of Rotter, make a profile of the current Senate President.

The current Senate President Vicente Sotto III with regards of the success in the congress
presidency in legislative as the third highest and powerful government of the Philippines may be thanks
to the Sotto historical political dynasty across the entire country. Due to the environment, his success in
show business (also known as showbiz) is also a contribution to this said success which pushed him up to
his reputation to the public mass as a host in Eat Bulaga.

8. Explain the concept of maladaptive behavior.

Maladaptive behavior in Rotter’s social learning theory is any persistent behavior that fails to
move a person closer to a desired goal. It frequently, but not inevitably, arises from the combination of
high need value and low freedom of movement: that is, from goals that are unrealistically high in
relation to one’s ability to achieve them.

9. What is consistency paradox?

Consistency paradox is the observation that a human being’s personality tends to remain the
same over time, while their behavior can change in different situations. Many personality characteristics
are relatively constant throughout a person's life, but people can act in all sorts of ways (even ones that
seem to be opposite of their personality) in different situations.

10. What is person-situation interaction?

The essence of this approach is summed up by the contextual contingency between behavior
and context in the statement “If I am in this situation, then I do X; but if I am in that situation, then I do
Y.”
11. Do a profile on President Duterte using the framework of Rotter.

In 2018, President Duterte blames the rape cases on beautiful women. Duterte was addressing
the high sexual assaults in the city of Davao. “As long as there are many beautiful women, there will be
more rape cases,” said Duterte adding on the insult to rape survivors. Relating on the concept of “Locus
of Control” by Julian Rotter, President Duterte seems to reside on the External Locus of control wherein
he blames women (the external factor) rather than the himself as an authority and former mayor of
Davao city (internal factor). He believed that the rape cases were out of his control, therefore he
concluded the women are the ones to be blamed.