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Introduction to Psychology
1. Psychology as a science
A Science is defined not by what it studies but by how it studies. Psychologists like any
other scientists systematically observe facts about human beings and organize these facts to
arrive at generalizations. Psychology shares with other sciences certain aims, assumptions, ways
2. Psychology is a body of knowledge that can be applied to help solve a variety of human
experimental, physiological psychology), there are many other areas of professional applications.
Clinical psychologists work with psychiatrists in a hospital context or with other health
professionals in the community. Educational psychologists work with children and adolescents in
schools, colleges, and nurseries and in the home. They collaborate with parents and teachers to
assess a child’s progress at school and provide help and advice. Counseling psychologists work
with individuals, families, couples, or groups to improve people’s well-being, alleviate distress
and help them solve their own problems and take their own decisions.
The word psychology is derived from two Greek words “psyche” and “logos.”
Psyche means soul, mind, consciousness, behavior or self and logos means the study. Thus,
originally psychology was defined as the study of “soul” or “spirit.” But later, philosophers
defined psyche as mind. Because of this, psychology began to be regarded as the study of an
individual’s mind or mental process. Through time, this later definition of psychology was given
up because the mind as an object does not exist and cannot be observed and measured
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objectively. The most widely and accepted definition of psychology is the scientific study of
There are some concepts in the definition of psychology which need further explanations:
What is science?
collect related facts by the use of objective methods to develop a theory to explain those facts.
Example-Biology explains how living things grow and develop. Anatomy describes the
structure of human body. Physiology deals with the function of various parts and systems of the
body.
feelings, emotions, thoughts and actions of men and women. Like other sciences, Psychology
discovers and explains the underlying laws and principles of behavior. Its goals are describing,
What is behavior?
Mental behaviors are thinking, reasoning, imagination and other mental experiences or
processes.
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Bodily behavior refers to the movements and actions of the body in response to a
situation.
exerts influence on individuals. That influence is called stimulus. The stimulus in turn arouses an
Example-A man may be admitted to a hospital for a surgical operation (stimulus). The
man feels frightened and worries because he is uncertain what may happen next (response). This
The human behavior consists of physical responses, feelings, emotions and tensions, and
all intellectual responses, perceiving, thinking, recalling, and reasoning Behavior shows growth
and development from the early years of infancy to maturity and old age. Psychology as a
science studies how behavior grows and develops from infancy to old age and studies behavioral
In general, there are four major facts proposed in relation to the nature of behavior.
These are:
Behavior is dynamic
Behavior is social
Example- a patient may react with anger if his movements are restricted in the ward. If
the health professional has knowledge of scientific psychology, it is possible to predict and
The study of animal behavior helps to develop general laws of behavior that apply to all
organisms.
The study of animal behavior provides important clues to answering questions about
Soul is a concept that is familiar to all of us but when we want to describe it precisely,
words fail us. Religiously, we think of soul as present inside us; we believe that if we are alive,
soul remains with us but when we die, it leaves our body. Similar notions of soul have been in
circulation in all ages and times, i.e., soul related to body, but we cannot feel it or see it; soul is
immortal and so on. In the beginning, soul was conceived to be present in all things and
This approach takes psychology as the study of mind. Mind is the sum of a person’s
psychic states, emotions, feelings, conscious and unconscious acts. The way brain reacts or
II. Conation: It is called the dynamic aspect of mental processes. The action that takes place in
reaction to some urge or drive is called conation. The desire or impulse to get something is
termed conation.
III. Affection: One’s feelings about some situation, event or thing are called affection. It may be
positive/pleasant or negative/unpleasant.
The nature and significance of these three aspects of mental processes varies from person
to person. However, despite these individual differences, they are present in every person.
consciousness, it will imply that psychology is concerned with an individual’s conscious states
and those experiences about which we are fully aware and don’t need to recall.
Behavior refers to all the outward acts and actions of living organisms. In other words,
Overt Behavior
Overt behavior refers to behavior or actions that are easily and directly observable.
Physical actions like walking, shaking hands with someone, hitting someone, talking, as well as
facial expressions (smile, smirk, frown, etc.) and bodily gestures (nail-biting, tilting the head,
Covert Behavior
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Covert behavior refers to human behavior that cannot be observed. Mental processes such
as thinking, reasoning, dreaming, and retrieving memories are covert behaviors. In addition,
Schools of Thought
1) Structuralism
outlook focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Major
thinkers associated with structuralism include Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener. The focus
of structuralism was on reducing mental processes down into their most basic elements. The
structuralists used techniques such as introspection to analyze the inner processes of the human
mind.
2) Functionalism
and was heavily influenced by the work of William James. It functioned on the mind's functions
and adaptations and focused on what the mind does and how it does.
3) Behaviorism
Behaviorism became a dominant school of thought during the 1950s. It was based upon
the work of thinkers such as: John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism suggests
that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by internal forces.
4) Psychoanalysis
elements work together to create complex human behaviors. Each component adds its own
unique contribution to personality and the three interact in ways that have a powerful influence
on an individual. Each element of personality emerges at different points in life.
Structure of Personality
I. The Id
The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all
desires, wants, and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state anxiety
or tension. For example, an increase in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate attempt to
eat or drink.
The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's desires in
realistic and socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an
According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five. The superego
holds the internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from our parents and society
(our sense of right and wrong). The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.
The superego tries to perfect and civilize our behavior. It works to suppress all
unacceptable urges of the id and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards rather
Levels of Mind
I. Conscious
The conscious mind consists of what we are aware of at any given point in time. It
includes the things that we are thinking about right now, whether it’s in the front of our
minds or the back. If we’re aware of it, then it is in the conscious mind.
II. Sub-conscious
The subconscious holds information that is just below the surface of awareness.
An individual can retrieve such information with relative ease, and we usually refer to
these as memories. the subconscious (or preconscious) is the stuff from which dreams are
III. Unconscious
that are buried deep within ourselves, far below our conscious awareness. Even though
we’re not aware of their existence, they have a significant influence on our behavior.
Although our behaviors tend to indicate the unconscious forces driving them, we
can’t readily access the information which is stored in the unconscious mind. Throughout
our childhood, we gathered many different memories and experiences that formed the
beliefs, fears, and insecurities that we carry today. However, we cannot recall most of
these memories. They are unconscious forces that drive our behaviors.
5) Humanistic
with a perspective that emphasizes looking at the whole person, and the uniqueness of
everyone. It begins with the existential assumptions that people have free will and are
6) Cognitive
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processes including how people think, perceive, remember, and learn and major
7) Biological
genetics and physiology. It is the only approach in psychology that examines thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors from a biological and thus physical point of view. Therefore, all
8) Gestalt Perspective
provided the foundation for the modern study of perception. Gestalt theory
emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts. That is, the attributes of
the whole are not deducible from analysis of the parts in isolation.
Subfields of Psychology
Subfields Description
Social Focuses on interpersonal behavior and the role of social forces in governing behavior.
Psychology Typical topics include attitude formation, attitude change, prejudice, conformity,
attraction, aggression, intimate relationships, and behavior in groups.
Educational Studies how people learn and the best ways to teach them. Examines curriculum design,
Psychology teacher training, achievement testing, student motivation, classroom diversity, and other
aspects of the educational process.
Health Focuses on how psychological factors relate to the promotion and maintenance of
Psychology physical health and the causation, prevention, and treatment of illness.
Physiological Examines the influence of genetic factors on behavior and the role of the brain, nervous
Psychology system, endocrine system, and bodily chemicals in the regulation of behavior.
Encompasses the traditional core of topics that psychology focused on heavily in its first
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