UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY.

Psychology is the scientific study of behavioural and mental processes

(Peterson 1991).

AS A PROFESSIONAL PSYCHOLOGIST/ MAJOR AREAS OF PSYCHOLOGY

BRANCHES

Besides understanding some history of psychology and general things of

psychology, it is important to remember know what psychologists do and
(where they practice.

1. Clinical Psychologists

This is one of the most popular field of psychology. Clinical psychologists are
trained to deal with treatments of emotional, mental and behavioural
disorders such as depression, anxiety and suicidal tendencies. They use a
treatment called psychotherapy and usually hold a PHD, they work in
hospitals or clinics in collaboration with doctors or may have a private
practice. In Zambia for instance you can find them at Chainama.

2. Counselling psychologists

Individuals who specialise in this field are trained to help or give guidance to
those with less problems such as marriage problems, helping students to
cope up with studies or school work, HIV/AIDS to be called a counsellor in
Zambia you must be registered with Zambia Counselling Council (ZCC).

3. Developmental psychologists

They study the physiological, cognitive and social development that take
place throughout life. Some specialise in behavior during infancy, childhood
and adolescence or changes that occur in maturity or old age. They may also
study developmental disabilities and their effects.

4. Social psychologists
These examine people’s interaction with others and social environment, they
work in organisational consultancy, marketing research, system design or
applied psychology fields. Many social psychologists’ specialise in areas
such as group behaviour, leadership, altitudes.

5. Forensic psychologists

This is the principal in legal and criminal justice system, to help judges,
attorneys and other legal professionals understanding the findings of
particular cases. These are usually expert witnesses and typically
specialise in one of the three areas. Family court, civil court and criminal
court.

6. Educational psychologists

They are interested on how individuals learn or acquire knowledge, which

teaching methods are most effective and this field is closely linked with
psychology which help address student learning and behavioural problems
and evaluate student’s disabilities as well as the gifted and talented
students to help determine the best way to teach them.

7. Industrial psychologists

These ones are concerned with application of psychological technics and

findings to the solution of problems arising in the industrial area or
economic field. They also use aptitude tests as aids in determining selection
and replacement of employed and industrial psychologists may also work
with management to reorganise work setting in order to enhance
productivity.

8. Physiological Psychology

The domain of the physiological psychology is the examination of the

biological best bases of behaviour with particular reference to the
biochemical reactions underlying memory and learning, and the role of
various portions of the brain in the regulation of such motives as hunger
and thirst, and such basic processes as sleep.
UNIT 2: PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

What makes psychology a science?

It’s because all the methods it implores to study behaviour and mental
processes are scientific in nature.

Scientific nature of psychology (Core Values)

1. Accuracy – free from error

2. Objectivity – Should be free from subjectivity
3. Skeptic To verify after many experiments (after you are really sure)
4. Open Mindness- To accept that you might have gone wrong in your
observation (Leave room for further arguments or discovery).

What is behaviour?

Behaviour is defined as the action of an individual which cause adjustment

to the life. Some psychologist likes to differentiate behaviour as follows;

a. Overt – This is the behaviour you can easily see like jogging.
b. Covert – This is the behaviour you cannot easily see (Mind, thinking)

Goals of psychology

1. Describe behaviour (what is behaviour?)

2. Explain behaviour (To find out why behaving in a particular way)
3. Predict behavior (Will a certain pattern of behaviour continue?)
4. To Change behaviour where necessary to correct undesirable
behaviour

Psychology should not be confused with psychiatry. A common

misconception about psychology is synonymous with psychiatry. Psychiatry
is a distinct medical field (all psychiatry have a medical degree that is a
fundamentally concerned with mental disorder). Psychology has a much
broader focus, it explores topics such as perception, communication,
learning, memory and decision making etc.

RELATIONSHIP OF PSYCHOLOGY TO OTHER FIELDS

Psychology belongs to a field called behavioural and social sciences, in order

to meet its broad scope, it has to borrow from other fields. Psychology has
grown knowledge from various field (genetic). Genetic are used to explain
traits or characteristics in individuals, are they inherited (nature) or are they
acquired (Nurture)?

Health sciences- used to understand various psychological (body) changes

and how they affect behaviour.

Anthropology- used to find out how culture can affect behaviour. For
example, people from certain culture could have a certain preference or
attitude to certain food, how they raise children and the concept of beauty.

Economics- to find out how the previous social economic conditions

affect/influence behaviour

Political science- to explain how political situation can impact on human

behaviour.

This is not to say psychology is always drawing information from other

fields, for instance, the health science mighty want to find out from
psychologists why someone for example, consumes too much alcohol.

History of Psychology
Although the history of Psychology can be traced back to ancient Greece
with scholars such as Plato and Socrates who talked about human
behaviour and how the mind works. The formal beginning of psychology is
designated as occurring in 1879 in Leipzig Germany where Wilhelm Wundt
established the first psychology laboratory, it is here that psychology first
emerged as a science. In 1890 William James wrote a first book principals of
psychology, in 1892 Stanley Hall established the American Psychology
Association (APA) the largest association with members all over the world. In
1900 Sigmund Freud published the book Interpretation of books. In 1905
the first intelligence test was produced by Binet and Simon. In 1908
Margrate Washburn became the first woman to receive a PHD in psychology.
In 1920 Francis Summer was the first black man to receive a PHD in
psychology. In 1933 Inez Bevery Prosser was the first black woman to
receive a phd in psychology. 1n 1978 Herbert Simon received a Noble Prize
on his work or recognition of his work. In 1981 Roger Sperry received his
noble prize on his work of split brain.

SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY

1. Structuralism

This school emerged from the works of Wilhelm Wundt. In his theory the
mind was the structure and the goal of psychology was to analyse the mind
into elemental structural parts . he believed that it was important to know
what the mind is made out of and used the method called Introspection
(looking within oneself) to study the structure of the mind.

2. Functionalism

It emerged in the late 19th and early 20th Century, it focused not in mind
itself but on how the mind influences the behavior . Thus the functionalism
argued that it is not the structure of the mind that was important, they
argued that the primary role of the consciousness was to mediate or
intervene between the needs of the environment and the demands of the
environment. This school was developed by John Dewery an American
philosopher who was trying to explore education functioning in schools and
gave importance to learning habit.
 3. Evolution

Charles Darwin proposed this theory, he gave importance to natural

selection that certain features in organisms lead to survival of the fittest,
these features are inherited traits passed on from generation to generation.
This school emphasises that all species are changing or evolving as
successful features are past on genetically to successive generation
(nature/nurture controversy)

CURRENT PERSPECTIVE IN PSYCHOLOGY

1. Biological perspective

It explains behavior in biological terms, that is the role of genes, brain, and
physiological changes are used to explain behaviour. It seeks to understand
the relationship between the body and mind. George Elias is the person
associated with this perspective

2. Psychodynamic/psychoanalytic perspective

This theory explains behavior in terms of unconscious drives and conflicts.

It also emphasises on the importance of early childhood experience as the
major determinant of adulthood. The person associated with this perspective
is Sigmund Freud.

3. Freud: psychoanalytic theory

Western thought than Sigmund Freud, the Viennese physician who lived from 1856 to 1939.
This revolutionary thinker’s psychoanalytic theory challenged prevailing notions of human
nature and human development by proposing that people are driven by motives and
emotional conflicts of which they are largely unaware and that they are shaped by their
earliest experiences in life (Hall, 1954). Freud’s ideas continue to influence thinking about
human development, even though they are far less influential today than they once were.
Because you have undoubtedly been introduced to this theory before, we cover it only briefly.

Instincts and Unconscious Motives

Central to Freudian psychoanalytic theory is the notion that humans have basic biological
urges or drives that must be satisfied. Freud viewed the new-born as a “seething cauldron,”
an inherently selfish creature “driven” by instincts, or inborn biological forces that motivate
behavior. These biological instincts are the source of the psychic (or mental) energy that fuels
human behavior and that is channelled in new directions over the course of human
development.

Freud strongly believed in unconscious motivation—the power of instincts and other inner
forces to influence behaviour without awareness. A preadolescent girl, for example, may not
realize that she is acting in babyish ways in order to regain the security of her mother’s love,
and a teenage boy may not realize that his devotion to body building is a way of channelling
his sexual and aggressive urges. So, you immediately see that

Freud’s theory emphasizes the nature side of the nature–nurture issue: biological instincts—
forces that often provide an unconscious motivation for actions—are said to guide human
development.

Id, Ego, and Superego

According to Freud (1933), each individual has a fixed amount of psychic energy that can be
used to satisfy basic urges or instincts and to grow psychologically. As a child develops, this
psychic energy is divided among three components of the personality: the id, the ego, and the
superego. At birth, all psychic energy resides in the id—the impulsive, irrational part of the
personality whose mission is to satisfy the instincts. It seeks immediate gratification, even
when biological needs cannot be realistically or appropriately met. If you think about it,
young infants do seem to be all id in some ways. When they are hungry or wet, they fuss and
cry until their needs are met. They are not known for their patience.

The second component of the personality is the ego, the rational side of the individual that
tries to find realistic ways of gratifying the instincts. According to Freud (1933), the ego
begins to emerge during infancy when psychic energy is diverted from the id to energize
cognitive processes such as perception, learning, and problem solving. The hungry toddler
may be able to do more than merely cry when she is hungry; she may be able to draw on the
resources of the ego to hunt down Dad, lead him to the kitchen, and say “cookie.” However,
toddlers’ egos are still relatively immature; they want what they want now. As the ego
matures further, children become more capable of postponing their pleasures until a more
appropriate time and of devising logical and realistic strategies for meeting their needs.

The third part of the Freudian personality is the superego, the individual’s internalized moral
standards. The superego develops from the ego as 3- to 6-year-old children internalize (take
on as their own) the moral standards and values of their parents. Once the superego emerges,
children have a parental voice in their heads that keeps them from violating society’s rules
and makes them feel guilty or ashamed if they do. The superego insists that people find
socially acceptable or ethical outlets for the id’s undesirable impulses.

Conflict among the id, ego, and superego is inevitable, Freud said. In the mature, healthy
personality, a dynamic balance operates: the id communicates its basic needs, the ego
restrains the impulsive id long enough to find realistic ways to satisfy these needs, and the
superego decides whether the ego’s problem-solving strategies are morally acceptable. The
ego must strike a balance between the opposing demands of the id and the superego while
accommodating the realities of environment.

According to Freud (1940/1964), psychological problems often arise when the individual’s
supply of psychic energy is unevenly distributed among the id, the ego, and the superego. For
example, a person diagnosed as an antisocial personality, or sociopath, who routinely lies and
cheats to get his way, may have a weak superego, whereas a married woman who cannot
undress in front of her husband may have an overly strong superego, perhaps because she was
made to feel ashamed about any interest she took in her body as a young girl. Through
analysis of the dynamics operating among the three parts of the personality, Freud and his
followers attempted to describe and understand individual differences in personality and the
origins of psychological disorders.

Psychosexual Development
Freud (1940/1964) maintained that as the child matures biologically, the psychic energy of
the sex instinct, which he called libido, shifts from one part of the body to another, seeking to
gratify different biological needs. In the process the child moves through five psychosexual
stages: oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital.

Freud emphasized the role of nature over that of nurture in development, maintaining that
inborn biological instincts drive behavior and that biological maturation guides all children
through the five psychosexual stages. Yet he also viewed nurture—especially early
experiences within the family—as an important contributor to individual differences in adult
personality. At each psychosexual stage, the id’s impulses and social demands come into
conflict. Harsh child-rearing methods can heighten this conflict and the child’s anxiety.

To defend itself against anxiety, the ego adopts unconscious coping devices called defense
mechanisms (Freud, 1940/1964). Consider the defense mechanism of fixation— arrested
development in which part of the libido remains tied to an early stage. A baby boy who was
rarely allowed to linger at the breast, was screamed at for mouthing and chewing pay checks
and other fascinating objects left lying around the house, or was otherwise deprived of oral
gratification might become fixated at the oral stage. He would then seek to satisfy unmet
oral needs and to avoid the potentially more agonizing conflicts of the anal stage. He might
display this oral fixation by becoming a chronic thumb sucker and, later in life, by chain-
smoking, talking incessantly (as college professors are prone to do), or depending too much
on other people.

Similarly, the 3-year-old who is harshly punished for toileting accidents may become
fixated at the anal stage and turn into an inhibited or stingy adult. Or she may deal with her
anxiety through another defense mechanism, regression, which involves retreating to an
earlier, less traumatic stage of development. She may revert to infantile behavior—cooing
like a baby and demanding juice from a baby bottle. Similarly, the man who has had a terrible
day at work may want his wife to act like his mother and “baby” him. In this way, Freud
argued, early experiences may have long-term effects on personality development.

The phallic stage from age 3 to age 6 is an especially treacherous time, according to Freud.
Youngsters develop an incestuous desire for the parent of the other sex. (A boy’s Oedipus
complex and a girl’s Electra complex ) If all goes well, they resolve the emotional conflict
they experience by identifying with the same-sex parent and in the process incorporating that
parent’s values into the superego. After the lull of the latent period, during which sexual
urges are tame and 6- to 12-year-olds invest psychic energy in schoolwork and play,
adolescents experience new psychic conflicts as they reach puberty and enter the final stage
of psychosexual development, the genital stage. They may have difficulty accepting their
new sexuality, may re-experience some conflicting feelings toward their parents that they felt
during the phallic stage, and may distance themselves from their parents to defend themselves
against these anxiety-producing feelings.
During adulthood, people may develop a greater capacity to love and typically satisfy the
mature sex instinct by having children. However, Freud believed that psychosexual
development stops with adolescence and that the individual remains in the genital stage
throughout adulthood.

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

Stage (Age Range) Description Stage
Libido is focused on the mouth as a source of
Oral stage Birth to 1 year pleasure. Obtaining oral gratification from a
mother figure is critical to later development.

Libido is focused on the anus, and toilet

Anal stage 1 to 3 years training creates conflicts between the child’s
biological urges and the society’s demands.

Libido centres on the genitals. Resolution of

the Oedipus or the Electra complex results in
Phallic stage 3 to 6 years identification with the same-sex parent and
development of the superego.

Libido is quiet; psychic energy is invested in

Latent period 6 to 12 years schoolwork and play with same-sex friends.

Puberty reawakens the sexual instincts as

12 years and older youths seek to establish mature sexual
Genital stage relationships and pursue the
biological goal of reproduction

4. Behavioural Perspective
The person associated with this perspective is John B. Watson, this
perspective is much interested in overt behaviour. Behaviorists believe that
there are certain environmental factors that influence behavior (certain
factors in the environment affect behaviour). The other persons associated
with this perspective are Ivan Pavlov and B.F Skinner

5. Cognitive perspective

This perspective gives importance to the thinking process of an individual.

According to this perspective individuals are capable of thinking and this
influences their behavior. Human beings are seen as active information
processors constantly interacting with their environment. Jean Piaget is the
one associated with this perspective.

6. Humanistic Perspective

This perspective gives importance to the uniqueness of each and every

individual. All individuals are believed to be Inert good and strive for growth
or potential for growth (emotionally, physically, spiritually) but the main
task for each individual is to strive for their development potential. The
people involved in this perspective are Carl Rodgers and Abraham Maslow.

EXPERIMENTATION IN PSYCHOLOGY

In psychology, experiments are performed on animals and humans. You

need to remember that an experiment allows a psychologist to identify
causes and effects to the extent that there will be no ambiguity about what
caused what. You must also note that this is the most reliable of all methods
of collecting information. It is precise and systematic in its approach.
However, you need to remember that the findings of an experimental study
usually have 1imited application depending on the selected sample. Always
the sample needs to be as representative of the larger population as
possible, including the characteristic of the larger population.
UNIT III: METHODS OF RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY

The Methods of Psychology

The most important methods psychologists use to accomplish their

objectives are:

1. Naturalistic observation

For the most part, psychologists have learned about behaviour in animal
and human subjects from laboratory studies. However, at times
psychologists want to study how animals and people behave in their
normal environments.

2. The Case Study:

The case study is an essential part of understanding and helping people

with psychological disorders. Sigmund Freud, a psychologist was probably
the first man to introduce case history as a method of scientific
investigation.

The psychologist asks the patient about his/her background in relation to

the sickness. The psychologist then composes a case study, describing how
the patient’s difficulties arose, how he/she copes with these difficulties and
what can be done to help the patient.
The major advantage of the case study is that it provides
comprehensive information about the patient that is being studied and from
various other sources.

In addition, it offers opportunity for cooperation between teacher’s parents,

and other social workers outside the school system.

One of the major problems of the case study is that it often forms the basis
for making sweeping generalizations which derive from data coming from
individuals whose evident may not necessary be reliable.

3.SURVEYS

Surveys are questionnaires, conducted in person or through the mail,

that inquire into the ways a group (of people) thinks or acts. It is important
for you to remember that in conducting surveys, the population or groups of
subjects to be surveyed must be identified. Thereafter, a statistical method
must be used to pick a random but representative sample of that
population.

Under survey you can choose to use either an interview guide or

questionnaire. The questionnaire is a short method for gaining information
on a specific problem in a brief interval of time. Medinnus and Johnson
(1976:21) credited Stanley Hall as the first psychologist to use questionnaire
in child study. Much information can be gathered by means of a written
questionnaire presented to the subjects. Through this method a very large
sample of the subjects can be covered. Questionnaires are widely used in
educational psychology. In a questionnaire, standard instructions are given
to all subjects and the personal appearance, mood or conduct of the
investigation will not colour the data collected.
4. Correlational Studies:

To see if two variables are associated or related in some way,

psychologists use a statistical technique devised by Francis Galton
known as correlation. Although the mathematics involved is a little
complex, the idea is very simple. Measure two variables, like height and
weight, and see if they are related. They are correlated when changes in the
value of one causes the changes in the value of the other.

5. Experimentation:

In psychology, experiments are performed on animals and humans. You

need to remember that an experiment allows a psychologist to identify
causes and effects to the extent that there will be no ambiguity about what
caused what. You must also note that this is the most reliable of all methods
of collecting information. It is precise and systematic in its approach.
However, you need to remember that the findings of an experimental study
usually have 1imited application because of the small number of people
involved.
UNIT IV: LEARNING

For a learning to occur, two things are important:

1. The presence of a stimulus in the environment and

2. The innate dispositions like emotional and instinctual dispositions.

A person keeps on learning across all the stages of life, by constructing or

reconstructing experiences under the influence of emotional and instinctual
dispositions.

Psychologists in general define Learning as relatively permanent behavioural

modifications which take place as a result of experience. This definition of
learning stresses on three important elements of learning:

 Learning involves a behavioural change which can be better or worse.

 This behavioural change should take place as a result of practice and
experience. Changes resulting from maturity or growth cannot be
considered as learning
 This behavioural change must be relatively permanent and last for a
relatively long time enough.

3 Types of Behavioural Learning

The Behavioural School of Thought which was founded by John B Watson

which was highlighted at the beginning stressed on the fact that Psychology
is an objective science, hence mere emphasis on the mental processes
should not be considered as such processes cannot be objectively measured
or observed.

Watson tried to prove his theory with the help of his famous Little Albert
Experiment, by way of which he conditioned a small kid to be scared of a
white rat. The behavioural psychology described three types of
learning: Classical Conditioning, Observational Learning and Operant
Conditioning.

LEARNING THEORIES

1. Classical Conditioning 2. Operant Conditioning 3. Learning by

Observation

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY AND LEARNING

The key premises of Classical Conditioning theory was established by

Russian Physiologist named Ivan Pavlov, who first discovered the crucial
principles of classical learning theory with the help of an experiment done
on dogs to study their digestive processes. The Nobel Prize laureate of 1904,
while studying the digestive processes in dogs came across a very interesting
observation during his experimentation. He noticed that his subject would
begin to salivate by seeing the lab assistant with white lab coats entering
into the room before being fed. Though Pavlov’s discovery is originally an
accidental discovery, but later with the help of his experiments the classical
conditioning theory came into existence. His Classical conditioning theory
played a crucial role in explaining the important psychological concepts like
learning and equally established the foundation for the behavioural school
of thought. Behaviourism is based on two major assumptions:

1. Learning takes place as a result of the interactions with the

environmental forces.
2. The environmental forces play a key role in shaping the behaviour.

According to Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning theory, learning takes place

because of association which is established between a previously neutral
stimulus and a natural stimulus. It should be noted, that Classical
Conditioning places a neutral stimulus before the naturally occurring
reflexes. In his experiment, he tried to pair the natural stimulus that is food
with a bell sound. The dogs would salivate with the natural occurrence of
food, but after repeated associations, the dogs salivated just by hearing the
sound of the bell alone. The focus of Classical Conditioning theory is an
automatic and naturally occurring behaviours.

Before
UCS———————————> UCR
(Food) (Saliva)

During
NS+UCS------------------CR
(Bell) + (Food) (Saliva)

After
CS———————————> CR
(Bell) (Saliva)

Key Principles of Classical Conditioning Theory

1. Acquisition: This is the starting stage of learning during which a

response is established firstly and then gradually strengthened.
During the acquisition phase, a neutral stimulus is paired with an
unconditioned stimulus which can automatically or naturally trigger
or generate a response without any learning. Once this association is
established between the neutral stimulus and unconditioned
stimulus, the subject will exhibit a behavioural response which is now
known as conditioned stimulus. Once a behavioural response is
established, the same can be gradually strengthened or reinforced to
make sure that the behaviour is learnt.
 2. Extinction: Extinction is expected to take place when the intensity of
a conditioned response decreases or disappears completely. In
classical conditioning, this occurs when a conditioned stimulus is no
longer associated or paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
3. Spontaneous Recovery: When a learnt or a conditioned response
suddenly reappears after a brief resting period or suddenly re-emerges
after a short period of extinction, the process is considered as a
spontaneous recovery.
4. Stimulus Generalization: It is the tendency of the conditioned
stimulus to evoke the similar kind of responses once the responses
have been conditioned, which occurs as a result of stimulus
generalization.
5. Stimulus Discrimination: Discrimination is the ability of the subject
to discriminate between stimuli with other similar stimuli. It means,
not responding to those stimuli which is not similar, but responding
only to certain specific stimuli.

The theory of Classical Conditioning has several applications in the real-

world. It is helpful for various pet trainers for helping them train their pets.
Classical conditioning techniques can also be beneficial in helping people
deal with their phobias or anxiety issues. The trainers or teachers can also
put to practise the Classical Conditioning theory by building a positive or a
highly motivated classroom environment for helping the students to
overcome their phobias and deliver their best performance.

Operant Conditioning Theory and Learning

Renowned Behavioural Psychologist B.F. Skinner was the main proponent of

Operant conditioning theory. It is for this reason that the Operant
Conditioning is also known as Skinnerian Conditioning and Instrumental
Conditioning. Just like Classical Conditioning, Instrumental/Operant
Conditioning lays emphasis on forming associations, but these associations
are established between behaviour and behavioural consequences. The
theory stressed on the role of punishment or reinforcements for increasing
or decreasing the probability of the same behaviour to be repeated in the
future. But the condition is that the consequences must immediately follow
a behavioural pattern. The focus of operant conditioning is on voluntary
behavioural patterns. Examples; puzzle box experiment Thorndike- hungry
Cat, Skinner box-Rat

Key Components of Operant Conditioning

 Reinforcement: Reinforcements strengthen or increase the intensity
of behaviour. This can be Positive and Negative.

Positive Reinforcement: When a favourable event or an outcome is

associated with behaviour in the form of a reward or praise, it is called
as positive reinforcement. For example, a boss may associate bonus
with outstanding achievements at work.

Negative Reinforcement: This involves removal of an unfavourable or

an unpleasant event after a behavioural outcome. In this case, the
intensity of a response is strengthened by removing the unpleasant
experiences.

 Punishment: The objective of punishment is to decrease the intensity

of a behavioural outcome, which may be negative or positive.

Positive Punishment: This involves application of punishment by

presenting an unfavourable event or outcome in response to a
behaviour. Spanking for an unacceptable behaviour is an example of
positive punishment.

Negative Punishment: It is associated with the removal of a favourable

event or an outcome in response to a behaviour which needs to be
weakened. Holding the promotion of an employee for not being able to
perform up to the expectations of the management can be an example
of a negative punishment.

Learning by Observation
According to Albert Bandura, learning cannot simply be based merely on
associations or reinforcements which he has mentioned in his writings in
his book Social Learning Theory which was published in 1977. Instead,
his focus was on learning based on observation, which he has proven
through his well known Bobo Doll experiment. He reckoned that children
keenly observe their surroundings and the behaviour of people around them
particularly their caregivers, teachers and siblings and try to imitate those
behaviours in their day to day life. He also tried proving through his
experiment that children can easily imitate the negative behaviours or
actions.

Another important principle of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory was that

learning something by way of observation, need not necessarily mean that it
would lead to a change in the behaviour. This behavioural change is entirely
influenced by the felt need or motivation of a person to endorse and adopt a
behavioural change.

Key Steps involved in Observational Learning

 Attention: Attention is very important for learning to take place

effectively by following observational techniques. A novel concept or a
unique idea is expected to attract the attention far more strongly than
those which are routine or mundane in nature.
 Retention: It is the ability to store the learnt information and recall it
later, which is equally affected by a number of factors.
 Reproduction: It involves practising or emulating the learnt
behaviour, which will further lead to the advancement of the skill.
 Motivation: Motivation to imitate the learnt behaviour of a model
depends a lot on the reinforcement and punishment. For example, an
office-goer may be motivated to report to office on time by seeing his
colleague being rewarded for his punctuality and timeliness.

SUMMARY
1. Classical Conditioning: In case of Classical Conditioning, the process
of learning is described as a Stimulus-Response connection or
association.

Classical Conditioning theory has been explained with the help of

Pavlov’s Classic Experiment, in which the food was used as the
natural stimulus which was paired with the previously neutral stimuli
that’s a bell in this case. By establishing an association between the
natural stimulus (food) and the neutral stimuli (sound of the bell), the
desired response can be elicited. This theory will be discussed in detail
in the next few articles.

2. Operant Conditioning: Propounded by scholars like Edward

Thorndike firstly and later by B.F. Skinner, this theory stresses on the
fact that the consequences of actions shape the behaviour.

The theory explains that the intensity of a response is either increased

or decreased as a result of punishment or reinforcement. Skinner
explained how with the help of reinforcement one can strengthen
behaviour and with punishment reduce or curb behaviour. It was also
analyzed that the behavioural change strongly depends on the
schedules of reinforcement with focus on timing and rate of
reinforcement.

3. Observational Learning: The Observational Learning process was

propounded by Albert Bandura in his Social Learning Theory, which
focused on learning by imitation or observing people’s behaviour. For
observational learning to take place effectively, four important
elements will be essential: Motivation, Attention, Memory and Motor
Skills.