INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY STUDY GUIDE

PSYCHOLOGY DEFINITION
Psychology is the science of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study
of conscious and unconscious phenomena, as well as feelings and thought. It is an academic
discipline of immense scope. Psychologists also seek an understanding of the emergent
properties of brains, linking the discipline to neuroscience. As a social science, psychologists
aim to understand the behavior of individuals and groups.[1][2]
Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes,
including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, subjective
experiences, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. Psychologists' interests extend
to interpersonal relationships, psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas
within social psychology. Psychologists also consider the unconscious mind.[3] Research
psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships
between psychosocial variables. Some, but not all, clinical and counseling psychologists rely
on symbolic interpretation.
USES OF PSYCHOLOGY IN NURSING
There is a major importance of psychology in the nursing profession. Successful nurses
build relationships with their patients. They use psychology in order to develop a rapport
with their patients and create a sense of calm in the room. Because of psychology, nurses
are often instrumental in things like getting their patients to take their prescribed
medication or calming them down before inserting an IV or taking a blood test.
Nurses who study psychology extensively are trained to understand a wide range and depth
of emotions and what those emotions can cause in an ill or injured patient. Likewise, they
can determine whether or not the emotional state of the patient is what's causing the
physical problems. Nurses also use psychology on themselves to a certain extent. They are
able to perform under unthinkable stress as they attempt to navigate through all the
emotions of a patient and get down to the root of the problem effectively – all while putting
their own emotions on the backburner. Without psychology and nursing careers coming
together, it would be hard for a nurse to do his or her job.
SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Structuralism and Functionalism: Early Schools of Thought

Structuralism is widely regarded as the first school of thought in psychology. This outlook
focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Major thinkers
associated with structuralism include Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener. The focus of
structuralism was on reducing mental processes down into their most basic elements. The
structuralists used techniques such as introspection to analyze the inner processes of the
human mind.

Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and
was heavily influenced by the work of William James. It functioned on the mind's functions
and adaptations. Unlike some of the other well-known schools of thought in psychology,
functionalism is not associated with a single dominant theorist. Instead, there are some
different functionalist thinkers associated with this outlook including John Dewey, James
Rowland Angell, and Harvey Carr.
Author David Hothersall notes, however, that some historians even question whether
functionalism should be considered a formal school of psychology at all given its lack of a
central leader or formalized set of ideas.1

Instead of focusing on the mental processes themselves, functionalist thinkers were instead
interested in the role that these processes play.

Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt psychology is a school of psychology based upon the idea that we experience things
as unified wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the
late 19th century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism.

Instead of breaking down thoughts and behavior to their smallest elements, the gestalt
psychologists believed that you must look at the whole of experience. According to the
Gestalt thinkers, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

The Behaviorist School of Thought in Psychology

Behaviorism became a dominant school of thought during the 1950s. It was based upon the
work of thinkers such as:

 John B. Watson
 Ivan Pavlov
 B. F. Skinner

Behaviorism suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than
by internal forces. Behaviorism is focused on observable behavior. Theories of learning
including classical conditioning and operant conditioning were the focus of a great deal of
research.

The behavioral school of psychology had a significant influence on the course of psychology,
and many of the ideas and techniques that emerged from this school of thought are still
widely used today. Behavioral training, token economies, aversion therapy, and other
techniques are frequently used in psychotherapy and behavior modification programs.

The Psychoanalytic School of Thought

Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology founded by Sigmund Freud. This school of thought

emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.

Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, ego,
and superego. The id consists of primal urges while the ego is the component of personality
charged with dealing with reality. The superego is the part of the personality that holds all of
the ideals and values we internalize from our parents and culture. Freud believed that the
interaction of these three elements was what led to all of the complex human behaviors.

Freud's school of thought was enormously influential, but also generated considerable debate.
This controversy existed not only in his time but also in modern discussions of Freud's
theories.
Other major psychoanalytic thinkers include:

 Anna Freud
 Carl Jung
 Erik Erikson

The Humanistic School of Thought

Humanistic psychology developed as a response to psychoanalysis and behaviorism.

Humanistic psychology instead focused on individual free will, personal growth and the
concept of self-actualization. While early schools of thought were primarily centered on
abnormal human behavior, humanistic psychology differed considerably in its emphasis on
helping people achieve and fulfill their potential.

Major humanist thinkers include:

 Abraham Maslow
 Carl Rogers

Humanistic psychology remains quite popular today and has had a significant influence on
other areas of psychology including positive psychology. This particular branch of
psychology is centered on helping people living happier, more fulfilling lives.

Cognitive School of Psychology

Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that studies mental processes including
how people think, perceive, remember and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive
science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience,
philosophy, and linguistics.

Cognitive psychology began to emerge during the 1950s, partly as a response to behaviorism.
Critics of behaviorism noted that it failed to account for how internal processes impacted
behavior. This period is sometimes referred to as the "cognitive revolution" as a wealth of
research on topics such as information processing, language, memory, and perception that
began to emerge.

One of the most influential theories of this school of thought was the stages of cognitive
development theory proposed by Jean Piaget.

BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
Each branch or field looks at questions and problems from a different perspective. While
each has its own focus on psychological problems or concerns, all areas share a common
goal of studying and explaining human thought and behavior.

Psychology can be roughly divided into two major areas:

1. Research, which seeks to increase our knowledge base

2. Practice, through which our knowledge is applied to solving problems in the real
world
Because human behavior is so varied, the number of subfields in psychology is also
constantly growing and evolving. Some of these subfields have been firmly established as
areas of interest, and many colleges and universities offer courses and degree programs in
these topics. 

Each field of psychology represents a specific area of study focused on a particular topic.
Oftentimes, psychologists specialize in one of these areas as a career. The following are just
some of the major branches of psychology. For many of these specialty areas, working in that
specific area requires additional graduate study in that particular field.

Abnormal Psychology
Abnormal psychology is the area that looks at psychopathology and abnormal behavior.
Mental health professionals help assess, diagnose, and treat a wide variety of psychological
disorders including anxiety and depression. Counselors, clinical psychologists, and
psychotherapists often work directly in this field.
 How Psychologists Define and Study Abnormal Behavior
Behavioral Psychology
Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based on the idea
that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. While this branch of psychology
dominated the field during the first part of the twentieth century, it became less prominent
during the 1950s. However, behavioral techniques remain a mainstay in therapy, education,
and many other areas.
People often utilize behavioral strategies such as classical conditioning and operant
conditioning to teach or modify behaviors. For example, a teacher might use a system of
rewards in order to teach students to behave during class. When students are good, they
receive gold stars which can then be turned in for some sort of special privilege.
Biopsychology
Biopsychology is a branch of psychology focused on how the brain, neurons, and nervous
system influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. This field draws on many different
disciplines including basic psychology, experimental psychology, biology, physiology,
cognitive psychology, and neuroscience.
People who work in this field often study how brain injuries and brain diseases impact human
behavior.
Biopsychology is also sometimes referred to as physiological psychology, behavioral
neuroscience, or psychobiology.1
Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the assessment and treatment
of mental illness, abnormal behavior, and psychiatric disorders. Clinicians often work in
private practices, but many also work in community centers or at universities and colleges.

Others work in hospital settings or mental health clinics as part of a collaborative team that
may include physicians, psychiatrists, and other mental health professionals.

Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on internal mental states. This
area of psychology has continued to grow since it emerged in the 1960s. This area of
psychology is centered on the science of how people think, learn, and remember.
Psychologists who work in this field often study things such as perception, motivation,
emotion, language, learning, memory, attention, decision-making, and problem-solving.
Cognitive psychologists often use an information-processing model to describe how the mind
works, suggesting that the brain stores and processes information much like a computer.
Comparative Psychology
Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal
behavior. The study of animal behavior can lead to a deeper and broader understanding of
human psychology.

This area has its roots in the work of researchers such as Charles Darwin and George
Romanes and has grown into a highly multidisciplinary subject. Psychologists often
contribute to this field, as do biologists, anthropologists, ecologists, geneticists, and many
others.

Counseling Psychology
Counseling psychology is one of the largest individual subfields in psychology. It is centered
on treating clients experiencing mental distress and a wide variety of psychological
symptoms.
The Society of Counseling Psychology describes the field as an area that can improve
interpersonal functioning throughout life by improving social and emotional health as well as
addressing concerns about health, work, family, marriage, and more.
Cross-Cultural Psychology
Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors
influence human behavior. The International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology
(IACCP) was established in 1972, and this branch of psychology has continued to grow and
develop since that time.
Today, increasing numbers of psychologists investigate how behavior differs among various
cultures throughout the world.
Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology focuses on how people change and grow throughout life. The
scientific study of human development seeks to understand and explain how and why people
change throughout life. Developmental psychologists often study things such as physical
growth, intellectual development, emotional changes, social growth, and perceptual changes
that occur over the course of the lifespan.

These psychologists generally specialize in an area such as infant, child, adolescent, or

geriatric development, while others may study the effects of developmental delays. This field
covers a huge range of topics including everything from prenatal development to Alzheimer's
disease.

Educational Psychology
Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with schools, teaching
psychology, educational issues, and student concerns. Educational psychologists often study
how students learn or work directly with students, parents, teachers, and administrators to
improve student outcomes.

They might study how different variables influence individual student outcomes. They also
study topics such as learning disabilities, giftedness, the instructional process, and individual
differences.

Experimental Psychology
Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that utilizes scientific methods to
research the brain and behavior. Many of these techniques are also used by other areas in
psychology to conduct research on everything from childhood development to social issues.
Experimental psychologists work in a wide variety of settings including colleges,
universities, research centers, government, and private businesses. Experimental
psychologists utilize the scientific method to study a whole range of human behaviors and
psychological phenomena.
This branch of psychology is often viewed as a distinct subfield within psychology, but
experimental techniques and methods are actually used extensively throughout every subfield
of psychology. Some of the methods used in experimental psychology include
experiments, correlational studies, case studies, and naturalistic observation.
Forensic Psychology
Forensic psychology is a specialty area that deals with issues related to psychology and the
law. Those who work in this field of psychology apply psychological principles to legal
issues. This may involve studying criminal behavior and treatments or working directly in the
court system.
Forensic psychologists perform a wide variety of duties, including providing testimony in
court cases, assessing children in suspected child abuse cases, preparing children to give
testimony and evaluating the mental competence of criminal suspects.

This branch of psychology is defined as the intersection of psychology and the law, but
forensic psychologists can perform many roles so this definition can vary. In many cases,
people working in forensic psychology are not necessarily "forensic psychologists." These
individuals might be clinical psychologists, school psychologists, neurologists, or counselors
who lend their psychological expertise to provide testimony, analysis, or recommendations in
legal or criminal cases.

 Current Statistics of School Psychologist Salaries

Health Psychology
Health psychology is a specialty area that focuses on how biology, psychology, behavior and
social factors influence health and illness. Other terms including medical psychology and
behavioral medicine are sometimes used interchangeably with the term health psychology.
The field of health psychology is focused on promoting health as well as the prevention and
treatment of disease and illness.
Health psychologists are interested in improving health across a wide variety of domains.

These professionals not only promote healthy behaviors, but they also work on the prevention
and treatment of illness and disease. Health psychologists often deal with health-related
issues such as weight management, smoking cessation, stress management, and nutrition.

They might also research how people cope with illnesses and help patients look for new,
more effective coping strategies. Some professionals in this field help design prevention and
public awareness programs, while others work within the government to improve health care
policies.

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

Industrial-organizational psychology is a branch that applies psychological principles to

research on workplace issues such as productivity and behavior. This field of psychology
often referred to as I/O psychology works to improve productivity and efficiency in the
workplace while also maximizing the well-being of employees.

Research in I/O psychology is known as applied research because it seeks to solve real-world

problems. I/O psychologists study topics such as worker attitudes, employee behaviors,
organizational processes, and leadership.
Some psychologists in this field work in areas such as human factors, ergonomics, and
human-computer interaction. Human factors psychology is an interdisciplinary field that
focuses on topics such as human error, product design, ergonomics, human capability, and
human-computer interaction.

People who work in human factors are focused on improving how people interact with
products and machines both in and out of the workplace. They might help design products
intended to minimize injury or create workplaces that promote greater accuracy and improved
safety.

Personality Psychology
Personality psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the study of the thought
patterns, feelings, and behaviors that make each individual unique. Classic theories of
personality include Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality and Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development.
Personality psychologists might study how different factors such as genetics, parenting, and
social experiences influence how personality develops and changes.
School Psychology
School psychology is a field that involves working in schools to help kids deal with
academic, emotional, and social issues. School psychologists also collaborate with teachers,
students, and parents to help create a healthy learning environment.

Most school psychologists work in elementary and secondary schools, but others work in
private clinics, hospitals, state agencies, and universities. Some go into private practice and
serve as consultants, especially those with a doctoral degree in school psychology.

Social Psychology
Social psychology seeks to explain and understand social behavior and looks at diverse topics
including group behavior, social interactions, leadership, nonverbal communication, and
social influences on decision-making.
This field of psychology is focused on the study of topics such as group behavior, social
perception, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression, and prejudice. Social influences on
behavior are a major interest in social psychology, but social psychologists are also focused
on how people perceive and interact with others.
Sports Psychology
Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic performance,
exercise, and physical activity. Some sports psychologists work with professional athletes
and coaches to improve performance and increase motivation. Other professionals utilize
exercise and sports to enhance people’s lives and well-being throughout the entire lifespan.
PARAPSYCHOLOGY
Parapsychology is the study of alleged psychic phenomena (extrasensory perception, as
in telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance, psychokinesis, a.k.a. telekinesis, and psychometry)
and other paranormal claims, for example related to near-death
experiences, synchronicity, apparitional experiences, etc. It is considered to
be pseudoscience and is rejected by a vast majority of mainstream scientists
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes such as attention, language
use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and reasoning.[1]
The origin of cognitive psychology occurred in the 1960s in a break from behaviorism, which
had held from the 1920s to 1950s that unobservable mental processes were outside of the
realm of empirical science. This break came as researchers in linguistics and cybernetics as
well as applied psychology used models of mental processing to explain human behavior.
Much of the work derived from cognitive psychology has been integrated into other branches
of psychology and various other modern disciplines such as cognitive science, linguistics,
and economics. The domain of cognitive psychology overlaps with that of cognitive science,
which takes a more interdisciplinary approach and includes studies of non-human subjects
and artificial intelligence.
APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY
Applied psychology is the use of psychological methods and findings of scientific
psychology to solve practical problems of human and animal behavior and
experience. Mental health, organizational psychology, business
management, education, health, product design, ergonomics, and law are just a few of the
areas that have been influenced by the application of psychological principles and findings.
Some of the areas of applied psychology include clinical psychology, counseling
psychology, evolutionary psychology, industrial and organizational psychology, legal
psychology, neuropsychology, occupational health psychology, human factors, forensic
psychology, engineering psychology, school psychology, sports psychology, traffic
psychology, community psychology, and medical psychology.
PURE PSYCHOLOGY
Pure psychology It provides the framework and theory, it contents deal with the formulation
of psychological principles and theories.principles and theories. It suggests various methods
and techniques for the analysis, assessment, modification and improvement of behavior
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over
the course of their life. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded
to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan. Developmental
psychologists aim to explain how thinking, feeling, and behaviors change throughout life.
This field examines change across three major dimensions: physical development, cognitive
development, and social emotional development.[1][2] Within these three dimensions are a
broad range of topics including motor skills, executive functions, moral
understanding, language acquisition, social change, personality, emotional development, self-
concept, and identity formation.
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Experimental psychology refers to work done by those who apply experimental methods to
psychological study and the processes that underlie it. Experimental psychologists employ
human participants and animal subjects to study a great many topics, including (among
others) sensation &
perception, memory, cognition, learning, motivation, emotion; developmental
processes, social psychology, and the neural substrates of all of these
LEGAL PSYCHOLOGY
Legal psychology involves the application of the study and practice of psychology to legal
institutions and people who come into contact with the law. Legal psychology is a field which
takes basic social and cognitive theories and principles and applies them to issues in the legal
system such as eyewitness memory, criminal and civil jury decision-making, investigations
and interviewing. Most notably, legal psychologists have been involved in areas such as
wrongful convictions and actual innocence cases, jury and trial consulting, as well as
Department of Justice guidelines on eyewitness identification.
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Clinical psychology is an integration of science, theory, and clinical knowledge for the
purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress
or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development.[1][2] Central to
its practice are psychological assessment, clinical formulation, and psychotherapy, although
clinical psychologists also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and
program development and administration.[3] In many countries, clinical psychology is a
regulated mental health profession.
ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of behavior,
emotion and thought, which could possibly be understood as a mental disorder. Although
many behaviors could be considered as abnormal, this branch of psychology typically deals
with behavior in a clinical context.
PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Physiological psychology is a subdivision of behavioral neuroscience (biological psychology)
that studies the neural mechanisms of perception and behavior through direct manipulation of
the brains of nonhuman animal subjects in controlled experiments.[1] This field of psychology
takes an empirical and practical approach when studying the brain and human behavior. Most
scientists in this field believe that the mind is a phenomenon that stems from the nervous
system. By studying and gaining knowledge about the mechanisms of the nervous system,
physiological psychologists can uncover many truths about human behavior.[2] Unlike other
subdivisions within biological psychology, the main focus of psychological research is the
development of theories that describe brain-behavior relationships.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Social psychology is the scientific study of how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of
individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, and implied presence of others, 'imagined'
and 'implied presences' referring to the internalized social norms that humans are influenced
by even when they are alone.
CHILD PSYCHOLOGY
Child psychology, also called child development, the study of the psychological processes
of children and, specifically, how these processes differ from those of adults, how they
develop from birth to the end of adolescence, and how and why they differ from one child to
the next. The topic is sometimes grouped with infancy, adulthood, and aging under the
category of developmental psychology.
ADULT PSYCHOLOGY
Adult psychology involves looking at the issues, stages and various influences that a child
experiences throughout their development into functioning adults. Child and adolescent
psychology can be divided into two main areas - the actual process of psychological
development that the child goes through when growing up and the analysis and treatment of
the various problems that a child may face throughout their development.

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY
Adolescent psychology seeks to understand teens and help them make the transition from
child to adult. The American Academy of Pediatrics explains that adolescence is a season of
fast-paced development in five key areas: moral, social, physical, cognitive, and emotional.
MILITARY PSYCHOLOGY
Military psychology is a specialization within psychology that applies psychological science
to promote the readiness of military members, organizations, and operations. Military
psychologists provide support to the military in many ways, including through direct clinical
care, consultation to military commanders, teaching others and supporting military training,
and through research relevant to military operations and personnel.[1] The stressors associated
with military service are many to include exposure to high-risk training and combat. As such,
psychologists are critical support components that assist military leaders in designing
appropriate training programs, providing oversight to those programs, and assisting military
members as they navigate the challenges of military training and military life in general. 
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Method # 1. Introspection:
(a) The Method:
Introspection is one of the older methods and is peculiar to psychology. It means looking
within, looking into the working of our own minds and reporting what we find there. In order
words, it is a method of “self-observation “— observation by an individual of his own mental
states directly by directing attention towards a particular experience with a particular purpose.

This kind of self-observation, therefore, is not a vague, unsystematic or haphazard

observation. For example, a student has been asked to answer a question. He has to recall
certain facts learned by him to organise them in a particular manner and then to report what
way he tried to recall, what he thought and felt when trying to recall. Thus, it is a method in
which the individual observes, analyses and reports his own feelings, thoughts or all that
passes in his mind during the course of a mental act or experience.

Method # 2. The Observational Method:

1. The Method:
It is one of the most popular of methods used in psychology for collection of data. This
method is also called the method of ‘objective observation’ as against introspection which is
a method of self-observation. The individual’s behaviour is observed by somebody other than
that person himself. The behaviour observed may be expressed in the form of bodily changes,
bodily action, gestures, facial expression and speech.

The psychologist may sit down and take notes of the behaviour of a subject under particular
conditions. The method was used widely by child psychologists who would prepare running
records of all that the child did during a certain period and in a certain situation. These
observations enabled them to make certain generalisations about human behaviour in general.

Method # 3. The Experimental Method:

The experimental method in psychology was made popular first by a German psychologist
named Wundt who opened the first psychological laboratory at Leipzing in 1879. The
tremendous progress which psychology has made during the last 50 years is due to the use of
this method.
Experimental investigations has thrown light on different ways of memorisation, the effect of
different factors on learning, mental fatigue, image and imagination, span of attention, the
effects of giving children practice or coaching on intelligence tests, transfer of training, the
role of maturation in learning and the like.

According to Chapin “An experiment is an observation under controlled conditions.”

Festinger says, “The essence of an experiment may be described as observing the effect on a
dependent variable of the manipulation of an independent variable.”

The clinical method is also called case study method. It is used by clinical psychologists,
psychiatrists, psychiatric social works and teachers in child guidance clinics or mental
hygiene centers or in ordinary school situations. Generally, we use this method when we want
to understand the causes and sources of people’s fears, anxieties, worries, obsessions, their
personal, social, educational and vocational maladjustments.

A couple of students in your class are showing poor scholastic achievements or some
behaviour problems. You want to understand the causes so that you may plan some treatment
procedures. This method will be useful in such conditions. It may be noted that the clinical
methods or “procedures are not designed to discover general behavioural trends, laws or
relationships. Rather they are concerned with a unique individual who is trouble in and
interest is focussed on the immediate, practical question of how to best help him. The starting
point of a clinical investigation is an individual who needs or seeks help and the procedure
ideally terminates with the better adjustment of the individual.” (Sawney and Telford).

Method # 5. The Genetic or Developmental Method:

This method, by laying emphasis on the developmental aspects of behaviour, seeks to find
out the causes of that behaviour in its crude beginnings. It assumes that a full appreciation of
such behaviour patterns of an adult requires the study of simple behaviour patterns in his
childhood. These simple behaviour patterns grow more complex gradually as the individual
grows in age.

An understanding of an adult can be facilitated if we be

Method # 6. The Testing Methods:

The testing methods comprise psychological tests, educational measurements, rating scales,
checklists and questionnaires. Some writers characterise rating scales, checklists and
questionnaires as field investigation methods as different from the testing methods. We know
that the use of questionnaires as a form of the introspective method. Rating scales and
checklists are often used as important devices of observing and evaluating personality or
behaviour traits.
In rating scales we rate or judge an individual on the possession or absence of certain traits.
The individual is given a place on the scale or a score which indicates the degree to which a
person possesses a given behaviour trait.

INTROSPECTION MENTHOD OF PSYCHOLOGY

Introspection is a process that involves looking inward to examine one's own thoughts and
emotions. The term is often used in everyday language to refer to the informal process of
exploring one's inner life, but the term also applies to a more formalized process that was
once used as an experimental technique in psychology.
The experimental use of introspection is similar to what you might do when you analyze your
own thoughts and feelings but in a much more structured and rigorous way. 
1. It gives direct information about one’s own self which is difficult by other methods.
Introspection is the easiest of all methods of educational psychology. 2. It does not need
any tool or laboratory as the subject and the investigator is the same. 3.It is the most
economical method and one which enables us to know about the mental state of an
individual, i.e. his emotions and feelings. 4. Introspection, as a method, has generated a
lot of research. It makes a base for other methods such as experimental and observation
method
5. The subjective observation method provides an opportunity to check the results
obtained through other methods. For example, the general finding is that the pleasant
materials are better remembered than the unpleasant materials. Suppose, in an experiment
the results suggested that the unpleasant materials were better remembered than the
pleasant materials. The reason for this unexpected finding can be found from the
introspective report given by the subject. The subject might have reported that he was
inattentive or mentally disturbed or feeling unwell when the pleasant materials were
presented to him. Here the introspective report would be helpful in explaining the results.
DEMERITS
1. This method is subjective in nature and lacks scientific objectivity 2. The most serious
objection against this method is that human mind is not static like inanimate objects such
as stone or chairs etc. our mental process is under constant changes so when one attempts
to introspect, the state of mental process disappears and it becomes a retrospect.
Therefore it is different to introspect the changing psychological experiences 3. There are
conflicting reports, as regards the findings collected from different introspectionists. 4.
This method lacks validity and reliability.
OBSERVATIONAL METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
It is one of the most popular of methods used in psychology for collection of data. This
method is also called the method of ‘objective observation’ as against introspection which is
a method of self-observation. The individual’s behaviour is observed by somebody other than
that person himself. The behaviour observed may be expressed in the form of bodily changes,
bodily action, gestures, facial expression and speech.
The psychologist may sit down and take notes of the behaviour of a subject under particular
conditions. The method was used widely by child psychologists who would prepare running
records of all that the child did during a certain period and in a certain situation. These
observations enabled them to make certain generalisations about human behaviour in general.
Advantages of Observation:
(1) Simplest Method:
Observation is probably the most common and the simplest method of data collection. It does
not require much technical knowledge. Although scientific controlled observation requires
some technical skill of the researcher, still it is easier than other methods. Everybody in this
world observes many things in their daily life. A little training can make a person perfect, to
observe his surroundings.
(2) Useful for Framing Hypothesis:
Observation is one of the main bases of formulating hypothesis. By observing a phenomenon
continuously, the researcher may get well acquainted with the observed. He came to know
about their habits, likes, dislikes, problems, perception, different activities and so many other
things. All these help him a lot to form a hypothesis on them. Any researcher, therefore, has
to be a good observer.
(3) Greater Accuracy:
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In other methods like interview, questionnaire etc., the researcher has to depend on
information provided by the respondents. So these are indirect methods and here the
investigator does not have any means to examine the accuracy of the data supplied by them.
But in observation the observer can directly check the accuracy from the observed. He can
apply various devices to test the reliability of their behaviour. So very often the data collected
through observation is more reliable than these collected through interview or questionnaire.
(4) An Universal Method:
Observation is a common method used in all sciences, whether physical or social. So it has
greater universality of practice. As a common method, it is very easily followed and
accepted.
(5) Observation is the Only Appropriate Tool for Certain Cases:
Observation can deal with phenomena which are not capable of giving verbal information
about their behaviour, feeling and activities simply for the reason that they cannot speak e.g.
infants or animals. Observation is indispensable for studies on infants who can neither
understand the quarries of the researcher nor express themselves clearly. In the case of
animals observation is the only way out. For deaf and dumb persons, for serious cases of
abnormality or mad persons, for non-cooperative persons, for too shy persons and for persons
who do not understand the language of researcher, observation will be the only appropriate
tool.
(6) Independent of People’s Willingness to Report:
Observation does not require the willingness of the people to provide various information
about them. Often some respondents do not like to speak about themselves to an outsider.
Some people do not have time or required skill to provide important information to the
researcher. Although observation cannot always overcome such problems, still relatively
speaking it requires less active co-operation and willingness of respondents. Observation is
ever possible without the knowledge of the respondents.
Limitations of Observation:
(1) Some of the Occurrences may not be Open to Observation:
There are many personal behaviours or secret activities which are not open for observation.
For example, no couple will allow the researcher to observe their sexual activities. In most of
the cases people do not allow the outsider to study their activities.
(2) Not all Occurrences Open to Observation can be Observed when Observer is at Hand:
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Such problems arise because of the uncertainty of the event. Many social events are very
much uncertain in nature. It is a difficult task on the part of the researcher to determine their
time and place. The event may take place in the absence of the observer. On the other hand, it
may not occur in the constant presence of the observer. For example, the quarrel and fight
between two individuals or groups is never certain. Nobody knows when such an event will
take place.
(3) Not all Occurrences Lend Themselves to Observational Study:
Most of the social phenomenon is abstract in nature. For example, love, affection, feeling and
emotion of parents towards their children are not open to our senses and also cannot be
quantified by observational techniques. The researcher may employ other methods like case
study; interview etc. to study such phenomena.
(4) Lack of Reliability:
Because social phenomena cannot be controlled or used for laboratory experiments,
generalizations made by observation method are not very reliable. The relative-ness of the
social phenomena and the personal bias of the observer again create difficulty for making
valid generalization in observation. P.V. Young remarks that in observation, no attempt is
made to use instruments of precision to check the accuracy of the phenomenon.
(5) Faulty Perception:
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Observation is a highly technical job. One is never sure that what he is observing is the same
as it appears to his eyes. Two persons may judge the same phenomena differently. One
person may find something meaningful and useful from a situation but the other may find
nothing from it. Only those observers who are having the technical knowledge about the
observation can make scientific observation.
(6) Personal Bias of the Observer:
The personal bias, personal view or looking at things in a particular way often creates
obstacle for making valid generalization. The observer may have his own ideas of right and
wrong or he may have different pre-conceptions regarding an event which kills the
objectivity in social research.
(7) Slow Investigation:
Observation is a time taking process. P.V. Young rightly remarks that the valid observation
cannot be hurried; we cannot complete our investigation in a short period through
observation. It sometimes reduces the interest of both observer and observed to continue their
observation process.
(8) Expensive:
Observation is a costly affair. It requires high cost, plenty of time and hard effort.
Observation involves travelling, staying at the place of phenomena and purchasing of
sophisticated equipment’s. Because of this it is called as one of the most expensive methods
of data collection.
(9) Inadequate Method:
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According to P.V. Young, “the full answers cannot be collected by observation alone”.
Therefore many suggested that observation must be supplemented by other methods also.
(10) Difficulty in Checking Validity:
Checking the validity of observation is always difficult. Many of the phenomena of
observation cannot be defined with sufficient precision and does not help in drawing a valid
generalization. The lack of competence of the observer may hamper validity and reliability of
observation.

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
The experimental method in psychology was made popular first by a German psychologist
named Wundt who opened the first psychological laboratory at Leipzing in 1879. The
tremendous progress which psychology has made during the last 50 years is due to the use of
this method.
Experimental investigations has thrown light on different ways of memorisation, the effect of
different factors on learning, mental fatigue, image and imagination, span of attention, the
effects of giving children practice or coaching on intelligence tests, transfer of training, the
role of maturation in learning and the like.
According to Chapin “An experiment is an observation under controlled conditions.”
Festinger says, “The essence of an experiment may be described as observing the effect on a
dependent variable of the manipulation of an independent variable.”
Steps of Experimental Method:
(1) Statement of the problem.
(2) Formulation of hypothesis.
(3) Designing the independent and dependent variable.
(4) Controlling the conditions of experiment.
(5) Selection of experimental design.
(6) Analysis of the result.
(7) Verification and confirmation of the hypotheses by the result of the experiment.
Merits (Advantages) of Experimental Method:
1. Reliable and valid:
Experimental method is most reliable, most valid, most systematic, most precise and most
objective method of psychology.
2. Exact science:
It is the experimental method which has made psychology a science and put it on scientific
footing. As Woodworth states, “Experiment has made psychology an exact science.” It gives
us the exact results, as statistical techniques and calculations are used in it.
3. Universal application:
This method has universal application. It can be applied in case of children as well as adults.
Even animals can be studied with the help of this method. It becomes difficult to study all
types of people with the help of other methods.
4. Wide applications:
(a) It has wide applications in all the branches of psychology especially in the intelligence
measurement, personality measurement, attitude formation, individual differences and mental
disorders.
(b) Experimental investigations have been thrown light on different methods and laws of
learning and memory, effect of different factors of learning, memory, attention, interest,
motivation, transfer of training, growth and development and finally development of
personality.
5. Quantitative measurement:
It has introduced quantitative measurement in psychology. Individual is studied internally by
this method in a quantitative manner like the study of emotion, motivation, learning and
perception etc.
6. Special activities:
There are some special activities which can be studied only with the help of experimental
method. For example, phenomena of conditioning can be studied only with the help of
experimental method. Similarly reaction time of the subject cannot be tested with the help of
any method except the experimental method.
7. Pre-planned:
It can be pre-planned and the experimenter can be fully prepared for the accurate observation.
8. Variation and repetition:
The experimenter can control and create the conditions himself which influence the fact
under investigation and can vary them systematically. He can repeat them as often as he
wants. In observation, he has to wait for the natural phenomenon to occur. The experimenter
can repeat the experiment for many times without any wait.
9. Verification:
It is given to verification. Results of the experiment can be verified.
10. Utility in education:
Experimental method has been widely used in almost all the aspects of education i.e., in:
(1) determining the aim of education,
(2) curriculum,
(3) methods of teaching,
(4) framing the timetable,
(5) recruiting teachers,
(6) measuring the achievements of the pupils and
(7) in guidance programme.
Demerits (Limitations) of Experimental Method:
1. Lengthy and time consuming:
It is very lengthy, time consuming and energy consuming.
2. Expensive:
It is very expensive or costly as it requires well equipped laboratory or apparatus and experts
to handle them. Prof. Woodworth says, “Experiment is a very costly affair.”
3. Difficulty in controlling variables:
All the variables cannot be completely controlled. Experiments on heredity cannot be
conducted on human beings under controlled conditions.
4. Problem of measuring dependent variable:
Supposing that a suitable observable dependent variable is settled, still, there is the problem
of measuring them. We do not have anything like a thermometer or an inch scale or weight
box. We cannot say that such and such person has so much of anxiety. We can only say that
such and such person is more worried today than yesterday or he is more worried than
another individual. Our measures are purely ordinal and comparative. This also limits the
scope of our generalisations.
5. Artificiality:
There is certain amount of artificiality of laboratory conditions and this artificiality does curb
our results.
6. A gulf between laboratory and life:
In the laboratory, we control all other variables and arrive at a finding regarding the relation
between a specific stimulus and a specific response. In actual life, several stimuli act at the
same time and several responses appear. Hence there is a gulf between the laboratory
experiments and life.
A man who is hungry, thirsty, sick and has no money whose child has died and whose wife is
in the hospital is a cold fact we get in life. But no laboratory has studied such a man and
perhaps no laboratory will be able to do that though we may succeed in studying individually
the effect of each one of the above facts.
7. Every phenomena cannot be studied:
Every phenomena cannot be studied in the laboratory e.g., to study the causes of abnormality
and abnormal behaviour we cannot make our subject mad. Similarly, we cannot retard the
growth of a child to find out the causes of retardation.
8. Restriction of time and place:
In method of introspection and observation there is no restriction of time and place. But in
experimental method, there is restriction of time and place. An experiment cannot be
conducted at all times and all places. As Prof. Murphy states, “The restrictions of time, place
and laboratory are a great obstacle in the study of human behaviour.”

SURVEY METHOD
In psychology survey method is generally used to study the pattern of opinions, attitudes,
beliefs and values of the people. This method is also used to test the hypothesis about the
relationship of variables especially when some incident takes place. For example media tried
to analyze the responses of the people across the country after the attack by terrorists on
Mumbai. In order to collect the data from people a variety of sources are used such as directly
contacting the participants with a set of questions and taking their interview, sending the
questionnaire through email or through post and asking them to send SMS by their mobile
phones. Thus in survey, research is generally conducted through questionnaire or interview. It
can be conducted on a single individual as well as on a group
One of the big benefits of using surveys in psychological research is that they allow
researchers to gather a large quantity of data relatively quickly and cheaply. A survey can be
administered as a structured interview or as a self-report measure, and data can be collected
in person, over the phone, or on a computer.

 Surveys allow researchers to collect a large amount of data in a relatively short

period.
 Surveys are less expensive than many other data collection techniques.
 Surveys can be created quickly and administered easily.
 Surveys can be used to collect information on a broad range of things, including
personal facts, attitudes, past behaviors, and opinions.

Disadvantages
One potential problem with written surveys is the nonresponse bias. Experts suggest that
return rates of 85 percent or higher are considered excellent, but anything below 60 percent
might have a severe impact on the representativeness of the sample.5

 Poor survey construction and administration can undermine otherwise well-designed

studies.
 The answer choices provided in a survey may not be an accurate reflection of how the
participants actually feel.
 While random sampling is generally used to select participants, response rates can
bias the results of a survey.
 The social desirability bias can lead people to respond in a way that makes them look
better than they really are. For example, a respondent might report that they engage in
healthier behaviors than they do in real life.
INTERVIEW METHOD
The word "interview" refers to a one-on- one conversation with one person acting in the role
of the interviewer and the other in the role of the interviewee
In their words…. P.V. Young: Interview is a scientific method through which a person enters
into the life of a stranger. Good & Hatt: Interview is a process of social interaction between
interviewer and interviewee. Kerlinger: A face to face interpersonal situation in which one
ask questions from the other to get answer about a social problem.
. What is an interview method? • An interview is a method of conversation with a specified
purpose. • Psychologists uses interview method in order to gain information in an efficient
and streamlined manner.
. Interview method…. • Oldest and most widely used method • The conducting way depends
on the objectives or goals in question. • Investigate issues in an in-depth way • Discover how
individuals think and feel about a topic and why they hold certain opinions.
Types of interview

 TYPE I

 Definition of structured interview  A structured interview is a type of interview in

which the interviewer asks a particular set of predetermined questions.  In structured
interviews, questions are planned and created in advance, which means that all candidates
are asked the same questions in the same order.  It uses highly systematized techniques
of recording.  It is a method of quantitative research used for the purpose of the survey
TYPE II

 Definition of semi-structured interview  A semi-structured interview is a type of

interview in which the interviewer asks only a few predetermined questions while the rest
of the questions are not planned in advance.  In semi-structured interviews, some
questions are predetermined and asked all candidates, while others arise spontaneously in
a free-flowing conversation.  Open –ended questions with answers solicited in writing-
typically in the for of short essays  Respondents are free to write as much as or as little
as they choose  It has a general set of questions but the interview flows like
conversation and topics are covered as they come up.

Advantages of structured interview  Since in structured interviews all the candidates are
asked the same questions, it’s easy to compare their answers  We can evaluate
candidates in a most objective and fair way  Structured interviews are more legally
defensible  Can reach a large sample  Can ensure questions are fully understood. 
There is a pre-developed system or guide to check the results.  These are easy to
replicate, as a fixed set of closed questions are used.  It is easy to test for reliability 
Can take place within a short amount of time.  Allows generalization of results

Disadvantages of structured interview  Structure interviews are not flexible. This means
new questions cannot be asked during the interview  The answers from structured
interviews lack detail  Restrictive questioning leads to restrictive answers  Structured
interviews are harder and more complicated to develop.  Before giving questions we
have to write them, test them and make sure interviewers stick to them.  Interview
questions may be leaking out  The method seem a bit cold and impersonalized  It is
harder to provide an excellent candidate experience

Advantages of semi-structured interview It can secure objective comparison of candidates

It provide a more personalized and spontaneous approach that allows exploration of
interesting points in a specific candidate. Less prone to interviewer’s bias. More
information can be explored. Needed data is collected. Interviewer and the interviewee
create the interview together. Flexibility to follow up interviewee’s responses ad interests.
Provide much more detailed information. Provide more relaxed atmosphere to collect
data.

Disadvantages of semi-structured interview • Spontaneous questioning makes answers

difficult to evaluate • The outcome largely depend on the skill of the interviewer • The
process is highly time consuming • It is very expensive • Sees to be un reliable • Difficult
to analyze the relevance of answers • Some of the information may not be revealed •
Needs preparation • Semi-structured interviews are less objective • legally harder to
defend.
TYPE III

 Definition of unstructured interview • An unstructured interview is a type of interview in

which the interviewer asks questions which are not prepared in advance. • In unstructured
interviews, questions arise spontaneously in a free-flowing conversation, which means
that different candidates are asked different questions. • As the interview is unplanned, it
has an informal approach where a friendly conversation takes place between the
 interviewer and interviewee. • They will contain open-ended questions that can be asked
in any order.

Advantages of unstructured interview The main advantage of an unstructured interview is

their personalized approach. They seem much more casual and help candidates relax and feel
more comfortable during the interview. Observing direct behavior Allows control of
extraneous variable Reliability of results by repetitive study Try to establish rapport ad trust
Gently guide discussion towards goal Explorative and qualitative studies They have increased
validity

 Disadvantages of unstructured interview • Time consuming • Employing and training

interviewers is expensive • Control can effect behavior • Not possible to know intentions
behind the behavior • Unable to produce data a whole • Information cannot be compared •
Analysis will be difficult

CASE STUDY METHOD

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community.
Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods
(e.g. observations & interviews).
The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e. the
patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a
particular individual.
The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual's past (i.e.
retrospective), as well as to significant events which are currently occurring in his or her
everyday life.
The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of data
collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Strengths of Case Studies

 Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.

 Provides insight for further research.
 Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.
Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible
if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach)
with the aim of ‘averaging’.
Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach case studies often shed light on aspects of
human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.
Research which only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to
give us insights into the subjective dimension to experience which is so important
to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.
Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that
might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can
help show how different aspects of a person's life are related to each other.
The method is therefore important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view
(i.e. humanistic psychologists).
Limitations of Case Studies

 Lacking scientific rigour and providing little basis for generalization of results to the
wider population.
 Researchers' own subjective feeling may influence the case study (researcher bias).
 Difficult to replicate.
 Time-consuming and expensive.
 The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted on the depth
of analysis that was possible within the available resources.
Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group we can never be sure if the case
study investigated is representative of the wider body of "similar" instances. This means the
the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.
Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e. descriptive) data a lot
depends on the interpretation the psychologist places on the information she has acquired.

SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
The field of psychology can be understood by various subfields of psychology making an
attempt in meeting the goals of psychology.
1. Physiological Psychology:
In the most fundamental sense, human beings are biological organisms. Physiological
functions and the structure of our body work together to influence our behaviour.
Biopsychology is the branch that specializes in the area. Bio-psychologists may examine the
ways in which specific sites in the brain which are related to disorders such as Parkinson’s
disease or they may try to determine how our sensations are related to our behaviour.
2. Developmental Psychology:
Here the studies are with respect to how people grow and change throughout their life from
prenatal stages, through childhood, adulthood and old age. Developmental psychologists
work in a variety of settings like colleges, schools, healthcare centres, business centres,
government and non-profit organizations, etc. They are also very much involved in studies of
the disturbed children and advising parents about helping such children.
3. Personality Psychology:
This branch helps to explain both consistency and change in a person’s behaviour over time,
from birth till the end of life through the influence of parents, siblings, playmates, school,
society and culture. It also studies the individual traits that differentiate the behaviour of one
person from that of another person.
4. Health Psychology:
This explores the relations between the psychological factors and physical ailments and
disease. Health psychologists focus on health maintenance and promotion of behaviour
related to good health such as exercise, health habits and discouraging unhealthy behaviours
like smoking, drug abuse and alcoholism.
Health psychologists work in healthcare setting and also in colleges and universities where
they conduct research. They analyse and attempt to improve the healthcare system and
formulate health policies.
5. Clinical Psychology:
It deals with the assessment and intervention of abnormal behaviour. As some observe and
believe that psychological disorders arise from a person’s unresolved conflicts and
unconscious motives, others maintain that some of these patterns are merely learned
responses, which can be unlearned with training, still others are contend with the knowledge
of thinking that there are biological basis to certain psychological disorders, especially the
more serious ones. Clinical psychologists are employed in hospitals, clinics and private
practice. They often work closely with other specialists in the field of mental health.
6. Counselling Psychology:
This focuses primarily on educational, social and career adjustment problems. Counselling
psychologists advise students on effective study habits and the kinds of job they might be
best suited for, and provide help concerned with mild problems of social nature and
strengthen healthy lifestyle, economical and emotional adjustments.
They make use of tests to measure aptitudes, interests and personality characteristics. They
also do marriage and family counselling, provide strategies to improve family relations.
7. Educational Psychology:
Educational psychologists are concerned with all the concepts of education. This includes the
study of motivation, intelligence, personality, use of rewards and punishments, size of the
class, expectations, the personality traits and the effectiveness of the teacher, the student-
teacher relationship, the attitudes, etc. It is also concerned with designing tests to evaluate
student performance. They also help in designing the curriculum to make learning more
interesting and enjoyable to children.
Educational psychology is used in elementary and secondary schools, planning and
supervising special education, training teachers, counselling students having problems,
assessing students with learning difficulties such as poor writing and reading skills and lack
of concentration.
8. Social Psychology:
This studies the effect of society on the thoughts, feelings and actions of people. Our
behaviour is not only the result of just our personality and predisposition. Social and
environmental factors affect the way we think, say and do. Social psychologists conduct
experiments to determine the effects of various groups, group pressures and influence on
behaviour.
They investigate on the effects of propaganda, persuation, conformity, conflict, integration,
race, prejudice and aggression. These investigations explain many incidents that would
otherwise be difficult to understand. Social psychologists work largely in colleges and
universities and also other organizations.
9. Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
The private and public organizations apply psychology to management and employee
training, supervision of personnel, improve communication within the organization,
counselling employees and reduce industrial disputes.
Thus we can say that in organizational and industrial sectors not only the psychological
effects of working attitude of the employees are considered but also the physical aspects are
given importance to make workers feel healthy.
10. Experimental Psychology:
It is the branch that studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, thinking, etc. by
using scientific methods. The outcome of the experimental psychology is cognitive
psychology which focuses on studying higher mental processes including thinking, knowing,
reasoning, judging and decision-making. Experimental psychologists often do research in lab
by frequently using animals as their experimental subjects.
11. Environmental Psychology:
It focuses on the relationships between people and their physical and social surroundings. For
example, the density of population and its relationship with crime, the noise pollution and its
harmful effects and the influence of overcrowding upon lifestyle, etc.
12. Psychology of Women:
This concentrates on psychological factors of women’s behaviour and development. It
focuses on a broad range of issues such as discrimination against women, the possibility of
structural differences in the brain of men and women, the effect of hormones on behaviour,
and the cause of violence against women, fear of success, outsmarting nature of women with
respect to men in various accomplishments.
13. Sports and Exercise Psychology:
It studies the role of motivation in sport, social aspects of sport and physiological issues like
importance of training on muscle development, the coordination between eye and hand, the
muscular coordination in track and field, swimming and gymnastics.
14. Cognitive Psychology:
It has its roots in the cognitive outlook of the Gestalt principles. It studies thinking, memory,
language, development, perception, imagery and other mental processes in order to peep into
the higher human mental functions like insight, creativity and problem-solving. The names of
psychologists like Edward Tolman and Jean Piaget are associated with the propagation of the
ideas of this school of thought.
ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN NURSING
Nurses need psychology because they work in a setting that requires interaction with patients
and other professionals all to provide quality care. It helps them to understand the way other
peoples behave and act in particular situations. Psychological skills come into play because
all the people come from different backgrounds which affect the way they behave.
Psychology helps nurses in these ways:
Better interaction with Patients
Nursing involves the management of patients with different types of illnesses hence they
must try to understand the kind of pain that is hurting them to change their attitude and
thoughts to improve well-being.
Nurses who draw on psychology will make a better decision on how to interact with the
patients according to different factors such as age and gender. For instance, children and
young patients are likely to fear attention from adults. It will difficult to make them relax to
listen to and understand their illness. A nurse needs to apply psychology and knowledge of
child development to young patients to make headway in alleviating their apprehensions.
Psychology helps to build a relationship between nurse and patients. As a result, the patients
can interact and communicate openly and communicate their specific needs to the caregiver.
Proper Assessment
When evaluating the condition of a patient, nurses consider the severity of illness, level of
discomfort or pain and response of the patient. Nurses must identify the emotional and mental
status of their patients for inclusion as part of their evaluation. Psychology helps them to
determine the real behavior of the patient in reaction to the ill health. For instance, some
patients have optimism even if they are seriously sick or when the prognosis is incredibly
bleak. A nurse will know that an optimistic patient is likely to cope better with pain and other
symptoms of the disease.
Another group of patients might respond by hopelessness or anger sometimes to the extent of
lashing out at innocent hospital staff or their families while others become withdrawn. Some
skills in psychology will enable the nurse to define the best way to help such patients as they
have more difficulty in coping with their symptoms. They are likely to complain of great
discomfort than other patients suffering from similar conditions.
Creation of an efficient care plan
A nurse should consider must make a wholesome decision when deciding on the best care
plan by considering the mental and physical state. For example, a patient who is having
anxiety after diagnosis of chronic disease might lose interest in activities of daily living and
even refuse to leave the bed. It is a dangerous habit that will increase the risk of secondary
infections such as pneumonia or respiratory infections.
A nurse requires some knowledge of psychology to judge if a patient has enthusiasms about
the treatment and care plan. A suspicion that the patient will not participate in the recovery
plans should trigger the nurse into action. The patient might be complicated to engage, but
nurses still need to provide encouragement, emotional support and determine strategies to
adapt the treatment plan to his or her psychological health. For instance, a nurse might score a
few short-term goals that a patient will achieve such as getting out the bed early in the
morning for a walk around the room and walking out of the room for at least 10 minutes a
day in the afternoon.
The importance of psychology in nursing is that it enables nurses to understand better why a
patient behaves in a certain way and determine the best way to interact. The patient, in turn,
will trust the nurse and become more responsive to instructions.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION

Education is a process which enables the individual to distinguish between true and false,
good and bad, right and wrong. Education is concerned with human ends and the means of
promoting them.
Psychology is concerned with understanding and gaining knowledge of human experience
and actions.
Educational Psychology is the systematic study of the educational growth and development
of a child.
We study Psychology in Education because it is very essential for a teacher to teach his/ her
students according to their mental abilities. Educational psychology helps the teacher in
doing so.
Education and psychology are interdependent. Psychology is the study of human behavior
while Education is the process of modifying human behavior. Both deal with human
behaviour, but in different ways. Educational psychology deals with educational problems.
Psychology has changed the spirit of education and given new meaning to learning in the
classroom. Psychology changed the old concept of education where only upper class had the
ability and right to learn.
Psychology has given education the theory of individual differences which postulates that
every child has different mental ability and learns at a different pace.
Today, education psychology is considered the foundation of education.
Psychology helps education in the following ways:
o Psychology suggests use of different methods in teaching learning process to
achieve better results.
o Psychology gives emphasis to motivation and readiness in class room.
o Psychology has introduced new theories of learning in education.
o Psychology emphasises activity – based teaching learning process.
o Psychology encourages the use of audio-visual aids in teaching learning
process.

IMPORTANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Psychology is very important especially because it deals with the study of the mental
processes and behaviour at the same time. It is also applied in our daily lives and in many
things. How we behave, how we react to situations, and how we perform are all associated
with psychology. That is because psychology studies our nature, how we think and how it is
related to what we do, and why we think and act the way we do. It is actually very
complicated because unlike the study of disease processes and the physical body, studying
the human mind is very complicated and it is hard to study in an unbiased way. Its
importance in the society has grown significantly over the years. Psychology is used to study
various kinds of mental and life threatening diseases such as in Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and
many other types of neurological disorders. Psychology is also used to better understand and
help those with pervasive developmental disorders such as autism. The study of psychology
in these disorders and diseases has helped the medical professionals in developing cure and
treatment for certain diseases
With psychology, we are able to learn about ourselves. To fully understand ourselves we
have to know about the causes of our own behaviour and our perspectives in life. By knowing
ourselves and learning our own personality, we can develop goals for ourselves. Also, by
learning about ourselves, we are able to learn about other people and their differences.
Gaining understanding of oneself and of others can help improve the way relationships and
communications work. These are only some of the common uses and the importance of
studying psychology.
CLINICAL METHOD
 A Clinical line of inquiry is quite different from a naturalistic observation & the survey,
Clinical method focus upon understanding adjustment problems.  A Clinical study is an
in-depth study of the case in all it’s details. Hence clinical method is also known as case
study or case history method.
Clinical method is primarily used to collect detailed information on the behavior
problems of maladjusted and deviant cases.
 The maladjustment may be in the form of anti- social behavior, emotional disturbances,
in the area of learning and backwardness in school subjects.
Clinical method is applicable to individual cases. To the individual who has some
problem. Methods of diagnosis and treatment are employed in dealing with the problem.
It gives pleasure in making mankind healthier and better.
ADVANTAGES
It could be safely employed to study in- depth a particular individual with respect to the
problem area concerned. *Efficient & useful method to investigate misbehavior.
*Intensive study regarding individual behavior
DISADVANTAGES
The information given by the individual, parents, and friends is not verifiable and is
highly subjective. 2) The field of application of this method is quite narrow and limited.
3) There is a need for specially trained teachers or professionals for carrying out the
studies 4)Valid generalizations leads to enrichment of theory is not possible.

ORIGIN OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology did not emerge directly as a science. It started as a branch of philosophy and
continued for about 2000 years before emerging as a science. Psychology began as a result of
curiosity of cosmologists to understand about the mystic experiences and activities of people
and events. The term psychology was first encountered in philosophical books of the 16th
century. It was formed from two Greek words ‘Psyche’ (soul) and ‘logos’ (doctrine). By soul,
was meant the principle underlying all the phenomena of mental and spiritual life. The
modern ideas about mind and its functioning were derived from Greek philosophy. One of
the first stones in the foundation of psychology as a science was laid by the ancient Greek
physician Alcmaeon in 6th century BC, who proposed that, ‘mental life is a function of the
brain’. This idea provides a basis to understand human psyche even todayHippocrates known
as the father of medicine classifies people, into 4 types on the basis of body humors, viz.,
Sanguine (blood), Melancholic (black bile), Choleric (yellow bile) and Phlegmatic (phlegm).
Socrates recognised mind also in addition to soul.
He had analysed the activities of mind in the form of thinking, imagination, memory and
dreams. Further, his pupils Plato and Aristotle strengthened and continued the idea of
Socrates. However, they did not have much belief in the existence of soul. So they stressed
reasoning ability of man and called human being as a rational animal.
Plato was more interested to know the role of mind in controlling human behaviour. He was
the progenitor of dualism in psychology.
He regarded material and spiritual substances, the body and mind as two independent and
antagonistic principles, but he could not clarify his doubt satisfactorily. Plato’s dualism was
largely overcome by his pupil Aristotle who reunited psychological thought with natural
studies and restored its close links with biology and medicine. He forwarded the idea of the
inseparability of soul and the living body.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650), who postulated the existence of soul as a separate entity which
is independent of body.
He said our body is like an automobile engine which will carry on its work without the
supervision of soul and hence the body and soul are separate. He declared that man has a dual
nature viz., mental and physical. By this way clarified the doubt raised by Plato.
He asserted that the process of doubting is the proof for existence of soul. (Cogito ergo sum
-1 think, therefore I am). In other words the soul must exist in me, because I can think, and
thinking is the main function of soul. Gradually as the scientific outlook was developed,
philosophy started losing its prominence, so also soul. Then psychology was defined as the
‘the study of mind’. The word mind was less mysterious and vague than soul and hence this
definition was continued for some time.
Psychology came into being as a scientific discipline by the establishment of first Institute of
Psychology in 1879 at Leipzig in Germany by Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920). It is here the
first professional psychologists acquired the skills of experimental work to study the mind.
Wundt focussed his experiments as conscious experiences and he replaced the concept of
mind with consciousness. He adopted the method of ‘Introspection’.
As the time elapsed, the development of Psychology as an independent science got impetus.
Psychologists started discarding the different methods and approaches based on speculation
and attempted to provide scientific base to the subject.
These efforts resulted in the emergence of different schools of thought like Structuralism,
Functionalism, Behaviorism, Gestaltism, Psychoanalysis, Humanistic school, etc. The
formulation of these schools has led to various approaches to understand behaviour in their
own ways.