Topic: Areas of Psychology

Submitted by:
Sawera 23011502-020
Moeen 23011502-038
Ayesha 23011502-050
Aqeedat 23011502-055
Maheen Fatima 23011502-058
Submitted to: Miss Faiza Zafar
Class: BS-English (A)
Course Code: Psy 101
Assignment # 1
Date: 26-11-2023

Content

1. Biological
 Psychology

2. Developmental Psychology

3. Educational Psychology

4. Social Psychology

5. Criminal and Correctional Psychology

6. Abnormal Psychology

7. Clinical Psychology

8. Vocational Psychology

9. Industrial Psychology

10. Business Psychology

1. Biological Psychology
Biological psychology, also called physiological psychology or behavioral neuroscience, the
study of the physiological bases of behaviour. Biological psychology is concerned primarily with
the relationship between psychological processes and the underlying physiological events—or, in
other words, the mind-body phenomenon. Its focus is the function of the brain and the rest of the
nervous system in activities (e.g., thinking, learning, feeling, sensing, and perceiving) recognized
as characteristic of humans and other animals. Biological psychology has continually been
involved in studying the physical basis for the reception of internal and external stimuli by the
nervous system, particularly the visual and auditory systems. Other areas of study have included
the physiological bases for motivated behaviour, emotion, learning, memory, cognition,
and mental disorders. Also considered are physical factors that directly affect the nervous
system, including heredity, metabolism, hormones, disease, drug ingestion, and diet.
Theories of the relationship between body and mind date back at least to Aristotle,
who conjectured that the two exist as aspects of the same entity, the mind being merely one of
the body’s functions. In the dualism of French philosopher René Descartes, both the mind and
the soul are spiritual entities existing separately from the mechanical operations of the human
body. Related to this is the psychological parallelism theory of German philosopher Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz. Leibniz believed that mind and body are separate but that their activities
directly parallel each other. In recent times behaviourists such as American psychologist John B.
Watson moved away from consideration of the spiritual or mental and focused on observable
human and animal behaviours and their relationship to the nervous system. See behavioral
science.

2. Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology, also called Life-span Psychology the branch
of psychology concerned with the changes in cognitive, motivational, psychophysiological, and
social functioning that occur throughout the human life span. During the 19th and early 20th
centuries, developmental psychologists were concerned primarily with child psychology. In the
1950s, however, they became interested in the relationship between personality variables and
child rearing, and the behavioral theories of B.F. Skinner and the cognitive theories of Jean
Piaget were concerned with the growth and development of children through adolescence. At the
same time, the German psychologist Erik Erikson insisted that there are meaningful stages of
adult psychology that have to be considered in addition to child development. Psychologists also
began to consider the processes that underlie the development of behaviour in the total person
from birth to death, including various aspects of the physical-chemical environment that can
affect the individual during the intrauterine period and at birth. By the latter part of the 20th
century, developmental psychologists had become interested in many broad issues dealing with
the psychological process throughout life, including the relation of heredity and
environment, continuity and discontinuity in development, and behavioral and cognitive
elements in the development of the total person.

3. Social Psychology
Social psychologists are interested in all aspects of personality and social interaction, exploring
the influence of interpersonal and group relationships on human behavior. he way we perceive
ourselves in relation to the rest of the world influences our behaviors and our beliefs. The
opinions of others also affect our behavior and how we view ourselves. Social psychologists are
interested in all aspects of interpersonal relationships and the ways that psychology can improve
those interactions. For example, their research helps us understand how people form attitudes
toward others and, when these are harmful — as in the case of prejudice, for example —
provides insight into ways to change them. ocial psychologists study how social influence, social
perception and social interaction influence individual and group behavior.
Some social psychologists focus on conducting research on human behavior. Others focus on the
practical application of social psychology by helping organizations hire and train employees;
evaluating educational programs to determine if intervention strategies are working; searching
for ways to encourage people to reduce pollution; or offering advice to businesses or employees
who need help with conflict mediation.
Because social psychologists are trained to combine their knowledge of human behavior with
scientific research methods, job options and work settings are diverse. Many social psychologists
choose to work in educational environments such as colleges and universities where they
conduct research, teach classes and run social psychology laboratories. Other social
psychologists work for government offices, nonprofit organizations, hospitals, social service
agencies and private corporations. The range of career options for a social psychologist is so
varied it may include research, marketing, politics or even technology design

4. Educational Psychology
Psychologists working in the field of education study how people learn and retain knowledge.
They apply psychological science to improve the learning process and promote educational
success for all students. oday’s educational system is highly complex. There is no single learning
approach that works for everyone.
That’s why psychologists working in the field of education are focused on identifying and
studying learning methods to better understand how people absorb and retain new information.
Educational psychologists apply theories of human development to understand individual
learning and inform the instructional process. While interaction with teachers and students in
school settings is an important part of their work, it isn’t the only facet of the job. Learning is a
lifelong endeavor. People don’t only learn at school, they learn at work, in social situations and
even doing simple tasks like household chores or running errands. Psychologists working in this
subfield examine how people learn in a variety of settings to identify approaches and strategies
to make learning more effective.
Psychologists working in education study the social, emotional and cognitive processes involved
in learning and apply their findings to improve the learning process. Some specialize in the
educational development of a specific group of people such as children, adolescents or adults,
while others focus on specific learning challenges such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) or dyslexia.
No matter the population they are studying, these professionals are interested in teaching
methods, the instructional process and different learning outcomes.
How much does the time of day when new information is introduced influence whether a person
retains that information? What does culture have to do with how we process new ideas? How
does age affect our ability to develop new skills, like language? How is in-person learning
different from remote learning using technology? How does the choice of a media platform make
a difference in learning?
These are all questions that educational psychologists are asking — and answering — in settings
as diverse as government research centers, schools, community organizations and learning
centers.

5. Criminal and Correctional Psychology

Criminal psychology emerged in the 18th century due to the conflict between medical experts
and judges when sentencing individuals for criminal behaviour. In this way, criminal psychology
includes four main topics: philosophy, medicine, law and biology. Today, criminal psychology is
defined in the following way:Criminal psychology is a branch of psychology that aims to
understand and comprehend the views, thoughts, intentions, actions and reactions of individuals
who commit crimes.
In short, criminal psychology is a subfield of psychology that focuses on understanding the mind
of criminals. Therefore, criminal Criminal psychology studies criminal behaviour as well as
delinquency types. This is not only done by assessing individuals but also by conducting
research with non-criminal individuals. Other functionalities that a criminal psychologist could
engage in are the investigations of the psychological factors that lead to crime, the assessment of
how dangerous certain individuals are, and the development of psychological and
psychotherapeutic interventions for criminals.In essence, criminal psychology refers to studying
crime that doesn't place all the emphasis on the criminals themselves but on societies
too.Psychology uses psychological principles to explain this specific kind of behaviour.
Correctional psychology is a subfield of psychology in which basic and applied psychological
science or scientifically-oriented professional practice is applied to the justice system to inform
the classification, treatment, and management of offenders to reduce risk and improve public
safety (Neal, 2018). Any type of psychologist (e.g., clinical, counseling, developmental, social,
cognitive, community) can engage in correctional psychology by applying the scientific,
technical, or specialized knowledge of psychology to reduce offender risk and improve public
safety. Correctional psychologists are involved typically post-adjudication (such as conducting
research on the psychological effects of prison or probation conditions; treating prison inmates;
providing assessment services to inform treatment, classification).
The prison population in the U.S. has been growing at an explosive rate over the past few
decades, corresponding with the deinstitutionalization movement from state hospitals. The U.S.
incarcerates more people– including people with mental illness – with a much higher
incarceration rate per capita than any other country in the world. Correctional facilities have
become the largest provider of mental health services in the country, with the Los Angeles
County Jail now serving as the country’s largest psychiatric treatment facility.

6. Abnormal Psychology
Abnormal psychology is a branch of psychology that deals with psychopathology and abnormal
behavior, or the patterns of emotion, thought, and behavior that can be signs of a mental health
condition. The term covers a broad range of disorders, from depression to obsessive-compulsive
disorder (OCD) to personality disorders.
The term "abnormal" is the subject of considerable debate. What exactly is "normal" and who
gets to decide? The social norms that are often used to determine what is normal versus abnormal
can shift over time, so settling on a standard definition isn't simple or
straightforward.Counselors, psychologists, and psychotherapists often work directly in this field,
often in a clinical context. Rather than the distinction between normal and abnormal,
psychologists in this field focus on the level of distress that behaviors, thoughts, or emotions
might cause.
This article discusses what abnormal psychology is and the different topics studied by this area
of psychology. It also covers how abnormality is defined and some of the criticisms of abnormal
psychology. If a behavior is creating problems in a person's life or is disruptive to other people,
then this would be an "abnormal" behavior. In such cases, the behavior may require some type of
mental health intervention.
According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), nearly one in five U.S. adults live
with a mental illness.

The following characteristics are usually included:

 Abnormal behavior occurs infrequently. However, statistical infrequency alone is not a

sufficient definition. Some healthy, desirable, and beneficial behaviors also occur
infrequently. And other uncommon behaviors or characteristics have no bearing on how a
 person behaves or functions. So just because something is unusual or uncommon does not
mean it should be defined as abnormal.
 Abnormal behavior creates distress. These behaviors may disturb the individual, or they may
be upsetting and disruptive to others.
 Abnormal behavior affects a person's ability to function. People who are displaying these
behaviors may struggle to function normally in their daily life, which can affect their
relationships, work, school, and home life.
 Abnormal behavior is socially disruptive. It may violate social norms and make it difficult
for people to function in social settings and maintain social relationships.

7. Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychology, branch of psychology concerned with the practical application of
research methodologies and findings in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders.Clinical
psychologists classify their basic activities under three main headings: assessment (including
diagnosis), treatment, and research. In assessment, clinical psychologists administer and interpret
psychological tests, either for the purpose of evaluating individuals’ relative intelligence or other
capabilities or for the purpose of eliciting mental characteristics that will aid in diagnosing a
particular mental disorder. The interview, in which the psychologist observes, questions, and
interacts with a patient, is another tool of diagnosis.
For purposes of treatment, the clinical psychologist may use any of several types
of psychotherapy. Many clinical psychologists take an eclectic approach, drawing on a
combination of techniques suited to the client. Clinical psychologists may specialize
in behaviour therapy, group therapy, family therapy, or psychoanalysis, among others.
Research is an important field for some clinical psychologists because of their training in
experimental research and statistical procedures. Clinical psychologists are thus often crucial
participants in studies relating to mental-health care. Clinical psychologists work in a variety of
settings, including hospitals, clinics, and corporations, and in private practice. Some specialize in
working with mentally or physically handicapped persons, prison inmates, drug and alcohol
abusers, or geriatric patients. In some settings, a clinical psychologist works in tandem with a
psychiatrist and a social worker and is responsible for conducting the team’s research. Clinical
psychologists also serve the courts in assessing defendants or potential parolees, and others are
employed by the armed forces to evaluate or treat service personnel. The training of clinical
psychologists usually includes university-level study of general psychology and some clinical
experience. In the United States, New Mexico became the first state to grant psychologists the
right to prescribe medications for the treatment of mental disorders. Most clinical psychologists
who do not have medical degrees, however, are barred by state laws from prescribing
medications.

8. Vocational Psychology
Vocational psychologists are high-level career counselors who use their understanding of the
brain and personalities to assist career-seekers in selecting and pursuing careers. Vocational
psychologists help job seekers create resumes and cover letters, find open positions, and apply
for roles, but their responsibilities go much further than simply helping people find work.
Because they’re experts in thought, behavior, and personality, vocational psychologists can use
their in-depth knowledge and research to point career-seekers towards positions that match their
wants and needs perfectly.
Vocational psychologists use a variety of methods to evaluate career-seekers and make career
recommendations. They may administer psychological tests like career aptitude and personality
tests to determine what careers a person is suited for. They may also conduct in-depth counseling
sessions with career seekers in order to learn about what each individual is looking for. After
studying a career-seeker’s personality, the vocational psychologist provides more detail about
potential careers.
Vocational psychologists work with many different types of individuals. They may work in
schools where they provide career guidance to high school or college students. They may work
in government where they assist unemployed or underemployed individuals with finding new
careers. They may also work in business, helping companies form processes, initiatives, and
workplaces that are productive, happy, and conducive to reducing workforce turnover and
building a positive company culture.

9. Industrial Psychology
industrial-organizational psychology is the study and application of psychological concepts and
practices to a company or organization and its workforce. In practical terms, that means
industrial-organizational psychologists help companies maximize their efficiency by improving
hiring and promotion strategies, training and development, employee motivation programs and
much more.
“I would say it is using scientific study to look at employee-employer relationships as they relate
to productivity, morale, engagement, job satisfaction and attitudes,” said Dr. Thomas MacCarty,
associate dean of psychology programs at Southern New Hampshire University (SNHU).
Essentially, industrial-organizational psychologists can help businesses recruit and hire the right
people, help develop training and development programs to improve employee performance and
create incentives and organizational structures, so employees are happier and more productive at
the job and maintain work-life balance.
The Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) identifies 6 key areas
industrial-organizational psychologists (IOPs) focus on that are of “critical relevance” to
employees and businesses:

 Change Management – Work as a consultant during periods of downsizing or acquisitions,

manage a company’s culture and create fair and efficient hiring methods.
 Employee Attitude and Satisfaction – Build employee empowerment and job satisfaction
programs and educational efforts to reduce stress, burnout and voluntary turnover.
 Organization Development - Identify and train future organizational leaders, develop fair and
legal compensation practices and promotion policies.
 Performance Management – Design job performance measurement systems to improve
employee performance.
 Staffing – Recruit candidates that best fit positions in an organization and develop programs
to train and retain the company’s best employees.
 Testing – Develop tests and assessments to measure employees and potential employees’ job
knowledge and skills, personality and other factors that influence performance.

10.Business Psychology

Businesses are run by people. To run a business successfully, you need to understand the people
you work with, help them develop, keep them motivated, and find ways to get the most out of
them. Business Psychology picks up right here, being on the crossing between human
psychology and business administration in order to improve the productivity, efficiency and
culture of businesses as well as the working environment for employees.
Business psychologists understand the relationships between psychology and economics.
Therefore, they play an important role in helping companies better understand their customers
and employees. Their responsibilities within an organization consist of studying and optimizing
the workplace, motivating and helping employees and facilitating the day-to-day business.
Some examples of their work activities are:

 improving the efficiency of a business and developing a well-functioning organizational

structure;
 ensuring that employees enjoy their work, resulting in better productivity, performance and
motivation;
 ensuring that the workplace is a safe and diverse place that promotes employee wellbeing;
 assisting in building teams by participating in the hiring process of new employees.