UNIT I

AN UNTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY.

MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY:
The term ‘psychology’, literally means the science of the soul. Psychology is
derived from Greek word -Psyche means soul; logos means science. Meaning
Formerly, psychology was a part of metaphysics, and dealt with the nature, origin,
and destiny of the soul. It was called rational psychology. But modern psychology
is empirical, and does not deal with the problems relating to the soul.

It deals with mental process apart from the soul or mental substance. It is the
science of experience and behaviour, which tells us how the mind works and
behaves. It can predict the behaviour of an individual, and control it to a certain
extent by putting him under proper conditions. It seeks to discover the laws of
mind.

Psychology is concerned with the experience and behaviour of the individual.

Behaviour is the expression of experience, which belongs to a subject, and which is
due to the interaction of subject and object. It implies the duality of subject and
object. If there were no subject and object, there would be no experience.

Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior, according to the American
Psychological Association. It is the study of the mind, how it works, and how it
affects behavior.

Branches of psychology

There are different types of psychology that serve different purposes.

Clinical psychology

Clinical psychology integrates science, theory, and practice in order to understand,

predict and relieve problems with adjustment, disability, and discomfort. It
promotes adaption, adjustment, and personal development.A clinical psychologist
concentrates on the intellectual, emotional, biological, psychological, social, and
behavioral aspects of human performance throughout a person's life, across varying
cultures and socioeconomic levels.Clinical psychology can help us to understand,
prevent, and alleviate psychologically-caused distress or dysfunction, and promote
an individual's well-being and personal development.

Cognitive psychology

Cognitive psychology investigates internal mental processes, such as problem

solving, memory, learning, and language. It looks at how people think, perceive,
communicate, remember, and learn. It is closely related to neuroscience,
philosophy, and linguistics.Cognitive psychologists look at how people acquire,
process, and store information.Practical applications include how to improve
memory, increase the accuracy of decision-making, or how to set up educational
programs to boost learning.

Developmental psychology

This is the scientific study of systematic psychological changes that a person

experiences over the life span, often referred to as human development.It focuses
not only on infants and young children but also teenagers, adults, and older
people.Factors include motor skills, problem solving, moral understanding,
acquiring language, emotions, personality, self-concept, and identity formation..

Evolutionary psychology

Evolutionary psychology looks at how human behavior, for example language, has
been affected by psychological adjustments during evolution. An evolutionary
psychologist believes that many human psychological traits are adaptive in that
they have enabled us to survive over thousands of years.

Forensic psychology

Forensic psychology involves applying psychology to criminal investigation and

the law. A forensic psychologist practices psychology as a science within the
criminal justice system and civil courts.
It involves assessing the psychological factors that might influence a case or
behavior and presenting the findings in court.

Health psychology

Health psychology is also called behavioral medicine or medical psychology.

It observes how behavior, biology, and social context influence illness and health.

A physician often looks first at the biological causes of a disease, but a health
psychologist will focus on the whole person and what influences their health status.
This may include their socioeconomic status, education, and background, and
behaviors that may have an impact on the disease, such as compliance with
instructions and medication.

Health psychologists usually work alongside other medical professionals in clinical

settings.

Neuropsychology

Neuropsychology looks at the structure and function of the brain in relation to

behaviors and psychological processes. A neuropsychology may be involved if a
condition involves lesions in the brain, and assessments that involve recording
electrical activity in the brain.

A neuropsychological evaluation is used to determine whether a person is likely to

experience behavioral problems following suspected or diagnosed brain injury,
such as a stroke.

The results can enable a doctor to provide treatment that may help the individual
achieve possible improvements in cognitive damage that has occurred.

Social psychology
Social psychology uses scientific methods to understand how social influences
impact human behavior. It seeks to explain how feelings, behavior, and thoughts
are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of other people.

A social psychologist looks at group behavior, social perception, non-verbal

behavior, conformity, aggression, prejudice, and leadership. Social perception and
social interaction are seen as key to understanding social behavior.

Industrial and organisational psychology

Also known as occupational psychology, work and organisational psychology, and

I-O psychology, this increasingly prevalent discipline within psychology studies
the science of human behaviour in relation to the workplace. Work in this area
involves applying research on employee behaviours and attitudes to refine training
practices and management systems in order to improve performance, motivation,
job satisfaction, and occupational health and safety

How do psychologists think about and study the human mind and behavior?
Psychology is such a huge topic and conveying the depth and breadth of the
subject can be difficult. As a result, a number of unique and distinctive branches of
psychology have emerged to deal with specific subtopics within the study of the
mind, brain, and behavior.

Each branch or field looks at questions and problems from a different perspective.

While each has its own focus on psychological problems or concerns, all areas
share a common goal of studying and explaining human thought and behavior.

Psychology can be roughly divided into two major areas:

1. Research, which seeks to increase our knowledge base

2. Practice, through which our knowledge is applied to solving problems in the
real world

Because human behavior is so varied, the number of subfields in psychology is

also constantly growing and evolving. Some of these subfields have been firmly
established as areas of interest, and many colleges and universities offer courses
and degree programs in these topics. 

Each field of psychology represents a specific area of study focused on a particular

topic. Oftentimes, psychologists specialize in one of these areas as a career. The
following are just some of the major branches of psychology. For many of these
specialty areas, working in that specific area requires additional graduate study in
that particular field.

Abnormal Psychology
Abnormal psychology is the area that looks at psychopathology and abnormal
behavior. Mental health professionals help assess, diagnose, and treat a wide
variety of psychological disorders including anxiety and depression. Counselors,
clinical psychologists, and psychotherapists often work directly in this field.
Biopsychology
Biopsychology/physiological psychology  is a branch of psychology focused on
how the brain, neurons, and nervous system influence thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors. This field draws on many different disciplines including basic
psychology, experimental psychology, biology, physiology, cognitive psychology,
and neuroscience.
People who work in this field often study how brain injuries and brain diseases
impact human behavior. Biopsychology is also sometimes referred to as
physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience, or psychobiology.1
Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the assessment
and treatment of mental illness, abnormal behavior, and psychiatric disorders.
Clinicians often work in private practices, but many also work in community
centers or at universities and colleges. Others work in hospital settings or mental
health clinics as part of a collaborative team that may include physicians,
psychiatrists, and other mental health professionals.
Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on internal mental
states. This area of psychology has continued to grow since it emerged in the
1960s. This area of psychology is centered on the science of how people think,
learn, and remember.
Psychologists who work in this field often study things such as
perception, motivation, emotion, language, learning, memory, attention, decision-
making, and problem-solving. Cognitive psychologists often use an information-
processing model to describe how the mind works, suggesting that the brain stores
and processes information much like a computer.
Comparative Psychology
Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of
animal behavior. The study of animal behavior can lead to a deeper and broader
understanding of human psychology. This area has its roots in the work of
researchers such as Charles Darwin and George Romanes and has grown into a
highly multidisciplinary subject. Psychologists often contribute to this field, as do
biologists, anthropologists, ecologists, geneticists, and many others.
Counseling Psychology
Counseling psychology is one of the largest individual subfields in psychology. It
is centered on treating clients experiencing mental distress and a wide variety of
psychological symptoms. The Society of Counseling Psychology describes the
field as an area that can improve interpersonal functioning throughout life by
improving social and emotional health as well as addressing concerns about health,
work, family, marriage, and more.
Cross-Cultural Psychology
Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural
factors influence human behavior. The International Association of Cross-Cultural
Psychology (IACCP) was established in 1972, and this branch of psychology has
continued to grow and develop since that time. Today, increasing numbers of
psychologists investigate how behavior differs among various cultures throughout
the world.
Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology focuses on how people change and grow throughout
the entire lifespan. The scientific study of human development seeks to understand
and explain how and why people change throughout life. Developmental
psychologists often study things such as physical growth, intellectual development,
emotional changes, social growth, and perceptual changes that occur over the
course of the lifespan.
These psychologists generally specialize in an area such as infant, child,
adolescent, or geriatric development, while others may study the effects of
developmental delays. This field covers a huge range of topics including
everything from prenatal development to Alzheimer's disease.
Educational Psychology
Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with schools,
teaching psychology, educational issues, and student concerns. Educational
psychologists often study how students learn or work directly with students,
parents, teachers, and administrators to improve student outcomes. They might
study how different variables influence individual student outcomes. They also
study topics such as learning disabilities, giftedness, the instructional process, and
individual differences.
Experimental Psychology
Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that utilizes scientific
methods to research the brain and behavior. Many of these techniques are also used
by other areas in psychology to conduct research on everything from childhood
development to social issues. Experimental psychologists work in a wide variety of
settings including colleges, universities, research centers, government, and private
businesses.
Forensic Psychology
Forensic psychology is a specialty area that deals with issues related to psychology
and the law. Those who work in this field of psychology apply psychological
principles to legal issues. This may involve studying criminal behavior and
treatments or working directly in the court system.
Forensic psychologists perform a wide variety of duties, including providing
testimony in court cases, assessing children in suspected child abuse cases,
preparing children to give testimony and evaluating the mental competence of
criminal suspects.
Health Psychology
Health psychology is a specialty area that focuses on how biology, psychology,
behavior and social factors influence health and illness. Other terms including
medical psychology and behavioral medicine are sometimes used interchangeably
with the term health psychology. The field of health psychology is focused on
promoting health as well as the prevention and treatment of disease and illness.
Health psychologists are interested in improving health across a wide variety of
domains. These professionals not only promote healthy behaviors, but they also
work on the prevention and treatment of illness and disease. Health psychologists
often deal with health-related issues such as weight management, smoking
cessation, stress management, and nutrition.
Industrial-Organizational Psychology
Industrial-organizational psychology is a branch that applies psychological
principles to research on workplace issues such as productivity and behavior. This
field of psychology often referred to as I/O psychology works to improve
productivity and efficiency in the workplace while also maximizing the well-being
of employees. Research in I-O psychology is known as applied research because it
seeks to solve real-world problems. I-O psychologists study topics such as worker
attitudes, employee behaviors, organizational processes, and leadership.
Some psychologists in this field work in areas such as human factors, ergonomics,
and human-computer interaction. Human factors psychology is an interdisciplinary
field that focuses on topics such as human error, product design, ergonomics,
human capability, and human-computer interaction. People who work in human
factors are focused on improving how people interact with products and machines
both in and out of the workplace. They might help design products intended to
minimize injury or create workplaces that promote greater accuracy and improved
safety.
School Psychology
School psychology is a field that involves working in schools to help kids deal
with academic, emotional, and social issues. School psychologists also collaborate
with teachers, students, and parents to help create a healthy learning environment.

Most school psychologists work in elementary and secondary schools, but others
work in private clinics, hospitals, state agencies, and universities. Some go into
private practice and serve as consultants, especially those with a doctoral degree in
school psychology.

Social Psychology
Social psychology seeks to explain and understand social behavior and looks at
diverse topics including group behavior, social interactions, leadership, nonverbal
communication, and social influences on decision-making.
This field of psychology is focused on the study of topics such as group behavior,
social perception, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression, and prejudice.
Social influences on behavior are a major interest in social psychology, but social
psychologists are also focused on how people perceive and interact with others.
Sports Psychology
Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic
performance, exercise, and physical activity. Some sports psychologists work with
professional athletes and coaches to improve performance and increase motivation.
Other professionals utilize exercise and sports to enhance people’s lives and well-
being throughout the entire lifespan.

Myths and misconceptions of Psychology

The field of psychology is prone to a number of myths and misconceptions. This is

likely because people often have very little direct knowledge and experience with
the science of psychology. No wonder there are so many different misconceptions
about exactly what psychology is and is not.

Here are a few of the most common misconceptions.

Myth 1: Psychology Is Easy

This misconception is perhaps the first one dispelled for many students as they
struggle through their general psychology courses. Why do some people
mistakenly believe that psychology is simple and easy? One reason might be
because many tend to assume that since they have so much personal experience
with human behavior, they will naturally be experts on the subject. just because
psychology is challenging doesn't mean that it isn't accessible to anyone who might
take an interest in it. While there might be a learning curve, you can definitely
succeed in your psychology classes with effort and determination.

Myth 2: Psychology Is Just Common Sense

After hearing about the latest psychological research, people may tend to have an
"Of course!" type of response. "Of course that's true! Why do people even waste
their time researching stuff that's just common sense?" people sometimes exclaim.

But what seems like common sense isn't necessarily the case. Pick up any book
outlining some of the most famous experiments in the history of psychology and
what you will quickly realize is that much of this research refutes what was
believed to be common sense at the time.

That's the thing about common sense—just because something seems like it should

be true doesn't necessarily mean that it is. Researchers are able to take some of
these questions and presumptions about human behavior and test them
scientifically, assessing the truth or falsehood in some of our commonly held
beliefs about ourselves. By using scientific methods, experimenters can investigate
human issues objectively and fairly.
Myth 3: A person Become a Therapist With a Bachelor's Degree
In order to become a practicing therapist, you will need at least a master's
degree in a field such as psychology, counseling, social work, or advanced
psychiatric nursing. There are many opportunities to work in the field of mental
health at the bachelor's level, but these positions tend to be considered entry-level.
You cannot open your own private therapy practice with just a bachelor's degree.

It is also important to be aware that the professional title "psychologist" is a

regulated term. In order to call yourself a psychologist, you need to earn a
doctorate degree in psychology, complete a supervised internship, and pass state
licensing exams.

Myth 4: Psychologists Get Paid Lots of Money to Listen to People Talk

Certainly, some psychologists are very well compensated for their work. But the
notion that they are just passively sitting back, doodling on a yellow notepad while
their clients ramble on could not be further from the truth.

Traditional talk therapy is only one technique that a therapist might use, and it's
certainly not a passive process. Throughout these sessions, therapists are actively
engaged in listening to the client, asking questions, providing advice, and helping
clients develop solutions to put into daily practice.

Psychologists actually work in a wide number of professions and perform an

enormous range of different duties. Salaries can vary just as dramatically. Some
work in the field of mental health and focus on helping people who experience
psychological distress, but other professionals work in areas such as business,
education, government, and research.

Myth 5: Psychology Isn't a Real Science

Another common myth about psychology is that it is not a real science. First, let's
examine exactly what science is and is not.

Some key characteristics of a science:

 Uses empirical methods

 Researchers control and manipulate variables
 Objective
 Allows for hypothesis testing
 Results can be replicated
 Findings allow researchers to predict future occurrences

Psychology relies on all of these methods in order to investigate human and animal
behavior. Researchers utilize the scientific method to conduct research, which
means that variables are controlled and operationally defined.

Experimenters are able to test different hypotheses and use statistical analysis to
determine the likelihood that such results are due merely to chance. Psychologists
also present their findings in a way that makes it possible for other researchers to
replicate their experiments and methods in the future.

Psychology might be a relatively young science in the grand scheme of sciences,

but it is indeed a real science. However, it's important to note that scientific
psychology does have some limitations. Human behavior can vary and change over
time, so what is true in one particular time and place might not necessarily apply in
different situations, settings, cultures, or societies.

Myth 6
Speaking about your emotions and thoughts will only make them worse.

Of course different approaches work for different people, but in general, scientific

studies show that when we speak about our thoughts and emotions they actually
decrease in intensity.

This seems to be because talking about things can help you to work through
confusion, problem-solve, see things from a new perspective, discover solutions
and find clarity. Chatting can also help you to get some distance from your
thoughts and feelings, and to feel less alone.

Myth 7 A psychologist is only helpful if you have mental health issues.

Although many of our clients experience mental health issues, or have in the past,
we also have clients who come to see us because they:

 Are at a turning point in their life

Need extra support to navigate a big change – like retiring, becoming a

parent, being diagnosed with a chronic or terminal illness, or going through a
break-up

 Are looking for ways to enhance their wellbeing

 Want to get to know themselves better
 Value having someone objective and non-judgemental to chat about life’s up
and downs with
 Want a place where they can speak about issues that feel too confronting,
upsetting or personal to speak openly with family and friends about
 Want to feel more connected in their relationships
 Want to feel more satisfied or fulfilled in their life

Myths 8. If your symptoms improve and you start to feel better, there’s no
reason to continue seeing a psychologist.

It’s common to decide to take a break from therapy when your symptoms improve
and you start to feel like you’re getting back on track.
This makes sense, but when you feel stable and well, it can also be an ideal
opportunity to explore why it is that certain patterns of thinking and behaviour
continue to unfold in your life.

Myth 9

You should be able to find a psychologist who feels like the right match
straight away.

Just like we don’t click with every person we meet, sometimes clients and
psychologists don’t click.

If you meet with a psychologist and don’t feel like you gel, as frustrating and
disappointing as this can be, don’t give up. Feeling comfortable with your
psychologist is really important and worth persisting with.

At Inner Melbourne Clinical Psychology each of our psychologists understands

and genuinely values the importance of finding someone you get along with and
trust. We won’t be offended or defensive if you decide that you would like to try
another psychologist. We think these discussions are important and pride ourselves
on being open to feedback about the way we work.

To find out more tips for finding a psychologist who suits you, take a look at our
blog here.

Myth 10

Psychologists always focus on the past, especially your childhood.

When you first see a psychologist, in order for them to be able to get an accurate
picture of what’s happening for you, they will ask you some questions about your
past, including your childhood. This helps the psychologist to get to know you
better and it also helps them to understand the bigger picture and how it links to
what you’re wanting help with.

Myth 11
There’s no difference between speaking with a psychologist and speaking with
a family member or friend.

A psychologist can provide a perspective that is unique and unbiased, in part

because they are not involved in your personal life and therefore have no vested
interested, but also because psychologists undergo extensive training to learn to
listen in a way that is active, empathic, non-judgemental and objective. This
particular way of listening often allows people to open up and explore beliefs,
memories, experiences, ideas, fears and feelings that they might feel reluctant to
speak about with friends or family.
 Unit II
Psychology applied to social world
Interpersonal communication
Interpersonal communication is the process by which people exchange
information, feelings, and meaning through verbal and non-verbal messages: it is
face-to-face communication.Interpersonal communication is not just about what is
actually said - the language used - but how it is said and the non-verbal messages
sent through tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures and body language. When
two or more people are in the same place and are aware of each other's presence,
then communication is taking place, no matter how subtle or unintentional.
Without speech, an observer may be using cues of posture, facial expression, and
dress to form an impression of the other's role, emotional state, personality and/or
intentions. Although no communication may be intended, people receive messages
through such forms of non-verbal behaviour.

Elements of Interpersonal Communication:

Much research has been done to try to break down interpersonal communication
into a number of elements in order that it can be more easily understood.
Commonly these elements include:
The Communicators
For any communication to occur there must be at least two people involved. It is
easy to think about communication involving a sender and a receiver of a message.
However, the problem with this way of seeing a relationship is that it presents
communication as a one-way process where one person sends the message and the
other receives it. While one person is talking and another is listening, for example.

In fact communications are almost always complex, two-way processes, with

people sending and receiving messages to and from each other simultaneously. In
other words, communication is an interactive process. While one person is talking
the other is listening - but while listening they are also sending feedback in the
form of smiles, head nods etc.
The Message
Message not only means the speech used or information conveyed, but also the
non-verbal messages exchanged such as facial expressions, tone of
voice, gestures and body language. Non-verbal behaviour can convey additional
information about the spoken message. In particular, it can reveal more about
emotional attitudes which may underlie the content of speech.
Verbal Communication

Verbal communication is perhaps the most obvious and understood mode of

communication, and it is certainly a powerful tool in your communication toolbox.
Put simply, verbal communication is the sharing of information between two
individuals using words.

Spoken versus Written Communication

While we typically focus on speech while talking about verbal communication, it’s
important to remember that writing is also a form of verbal communication. After
all, writing uses words too!

Formal versus Informal: We generally use spoken communication informally while

we use written communication formally.

Synchronous versus Asynchronous: Synchronous communication

is communication that takes place in real time, such as a conversation with a
friend. In contrast, asynchronous communication is communication that is not
immediate and occurs over longer periods of time, such as letters, email, or even
text messages.

Recorded versus Unrecorded: Written communication is generally archived and

recorded for later retrieval while spoken communication is generally not recorded.

Spoken communication can be a conversation, a meeting, or even a speech. Spoken

communication is powerful in that it allows for input from every part of the social
communication model. Spoken communication allows to bond on a more
emotional level with listeners.

Spoken communication also makes it easier to ensure understanding by addressing

objections and clearing up misunderstandings: you can adjust your message as you
communicate it, based on the feedback you’re getting from your audience. Spoken
communication allows you to walk away from a conversation with a higher degree
of certainty that your message was received.

Nonverbal Communication

Non verbal communication : nodding, facial expressions, leaning toward the

speaker to show interest—all of those are forms of nonverbal communication.
Body language can reinforce your spoken message or it can contradict it entirely.

some types of nonverbal communication :

Facial expressions:  Facial expressions—happy, sad, angry—help you convey your

message. Be aware of your facial expression when you talk and particularly when
you listen, which is when it’s easy to forget.

Gestures:  a gesture can make message stronger. Pointing out something you want
your listener to look at more closely is an example of nonverbal communication
that makes your message understood

Proximity: How close you are to your audience when you speak sends a nonverbal
message. If your size is imposing and you leave a very small distance between you
and your listener, it’s likely your nonverbal communication will be a bit
threatening. On the other hand, giving someone too much space is an awkward
nonverbal communication that might confuse your listener.
Touch: Shaking an audience member’s hand, putting your hand on his shoulder:
these are nonverbal cues that can affect the success of your message.

Eye contact: Making and maintaining eye contact with an audience when you’re
verbally communicating or listening communicates to the other party that you’re
interested and engaged in the conversation. Good eye contact often conveys the
trait of honesty to the other party.

Appearance: Your clothing, hair, and jewelry are also a part of nonverbal

communication. Similarly, the quality and condition of your clothing, how it fits, if
it’s appropriate for the season—all of these things speak nonverbally about you as
a communicator.

Nonverbal communication reveals a lot about you as a communicator and how you
relate to other people. It pays to be aware of the elements of your nonverbal
communication so you can maximize the impact of your message.

Effective communication

Definition: Effective communication is a process of exchanging ideas, thoughts,

knowledge and information such that the purpose or intention is fulfilled in the best
possible manner. In simple words, it is nothing but the presentation of views by the
sender in a way best understood by the receiver.

Characteristics of effective communication

Clear Message: The message which the sender wants to convey must be simple,
easy to understand and systematically framed to retain its meaningfulness.

Correct Message: The information communicated must not be vague or false in

any sense; it must be free from errors and grammatical mistakes.

Complete Message: Communication is the base for decision making. If the

information is incomplete, it may lead to wrong decisions.

Precise Message: The message sent must be short and concise to facilitate
straightforward interpretation and take the desired steps.
Reliability: The sender must be sure from his end that whatever he is conveying is
right by his knowledge. Even the receiver must have trust on the sender and can
rely on the message sent.

Consideration of the Recipient: The medium of communication and other

physical settings must be planned, keeping in mind the attitude, language,
knowledge, education level and position of the receiver.

Sender’s Courtesy: The message so drafted must reflect the sender’s courtesy,
humbleness and respect towards the receiver.

Effective Communication Skills

Conveying a message effectively is an art as well as a skill developed after

continuous practice and experience. The predetermined set of skills required for an
influential communication process are as follows:

Observance: A person must possess sharp observing skills to gain more and more
knowledge and information.

Clarity and Brevity: The message must be drafted in simple words, and it should
be clear and precise to create the desired impact over the receiver.

Listening and Understanding: The most crucial skill in a person is he must be a

good, alert and patient listener. He must be able to understand and interpret the
message well.
Emotional Intelligence: A person must be emotionally aware and the ability to
influence others from within.
Self-Efficacy: Also, he/she must have faith in himself and his capabilities to
achieve the objectives of communication.
Self-Confidence: Being one of the essential communication skills, confidence
enhances the worthiness of the message being delivered.
Respectfulness: Delivering a message with courtesy and respecting the values,
believes, opinions and ideas of the receiver is the essence of effective
communication.
Non-Verbal Communication: To connect with the receiver in a better way, the
sender must involve the non-verbal means communication too. These include
gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, postures, etc.
Selection of the Right Medium: Choice of the correct medium for communication
is also a skill. It is necessary to select an appropriate medium according to the
situation, priority of the message, the receiver’s point of view, etc.
Providing Feedback: Effective communication is always a two-way process. A
person must take as well as give feedback to bring forward the other person’s
perspective too.
Barriers to Effective Communication
There are certain obstacles which sometimes hinder the process of communication,
making it less useful for the sender as well as the receiver. These barriers are
categorised under three groups.
Words :
Words play an essential role in the process of communication. Any disturbance or
distraction in the way a message is presented may lead to miscommunication.
Following are the different types of communication barriers related to words:
Language: It is a medium of communication. If the sender is making excessive use
of technical terms, it will become difficult for the receiver to understand the
message clearly.
Ambiguity and Overuse of Abstractions: Even if the message is presented in a
non-realistic or vague context involving a lot of abstractions, the receiver won’t be
able to connect with the idea properly.
Disorganised Message: When the words are not organised systematically to form
a powerful message, it loses its efficiency and meaning.
Information Overload: The effectiveness of communication reduces when a
person keeps on speaking for an extended period. Thus, leading to the receiver’s
exhaustion, who won’t be able to keep track of everything that is conveyed.
People’s Background
People belong to different backgrounds, i.e., culture, education level, gender, etc.
These attributes majorly affect the efficiency of the communication process. It
involves the following related obstacles:
Attitudinal Differences: At times, people are resistant to understand or change
their mind when they have set their views about a particular topic. Their attitude
obstructs meeting the purpose of the communication.
Demographic Differences: The difference in age, generation, gender, status,
tradition, etc., creates a lack of understanding among people and thus, hinders the
process of communication.
Lack of Common Experience or Perspective: The experiences of a person
develops their perspective of seeing things in a particular way. This perspective
varies from person to person. Therefore, it becomes difficult for a receiver to relate
with the sender’s experience or views as he might have never gone through it
himself.
Jumping to Conclusions: Some people lack the patience of listening to others and
often jump to conclusions between the communication, thus neglecting the motive
of the message.
Physical Barriers
These barriers can be experienced directly but challenging to overcome. These
include:
Physical Distance: When people communicate over long distances, they miss out
the non-verbal aspect of communication, since the gestures and expressions of the
receiver cannot be interpreted.

Noise: The environment or the communication system sometimes involve

unwanted noise which interrupts the process of communication making it
inefficient.
Physiological Barriers: One of the most common barriers to effective
communication is the physical disability of the people involved. Some of these are
hearing impairment, poor eyesight, stammering, etc.

Thus, we can say that the significant purpose of communication is to pass on the
information to the receiver in such a manner that it does not lose its significance.
At the same time, the message must be received in its purest form.

Assertive Communication
Assertiveness is communicating and expressing your thoughts, feelings, and
opinions in a way that makes your views and needs clearly understood by others,
without putting down their thoughts, feelings, or opinions.
Assertiveness is the ability to express our thoughts and feelings openly in an
Honest, Appropriate, Respectful and Direct way. It can be HARD to do, but it gets
easier with practice. In assertive communication both individuals are considered to
be equally important.

The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines assertiveness as:

“Forthright, positive, insistence on the recognition of one's rights”

In other words:
Assertiveness means standing up for your personal rights - expressing thoughts,
feelings and beliefs in direct, honest and appropriate ways.
It is important to note also that:

By being assertive we should always respect the thoughts, feelings and beliefs of
other people.
Assertiveness enables individuals to act in their own best interests, to stand up for
themselves without undue anxiety, to express honest feelings comfortably and to
express personal rights without denying the rights of others.
The Basic Assertive Rights of Every Human Being include:
Having dignity and self-respect
Saying NO when justified without feeling guilty
 Expressing ones feelings
 Asking for what you want directly
 Feeling good about oneself
 Being able to change mind
 Negotiating and reaching compromises when conflict exists
 Being able to make mistakes

Common Barriers to Assertivenes

Some people fear repercussions of acting assertively or may lack the skills to
express themselves effectively. They may believe that they don’t have the right to
be assertive. Communicating assertively will not guarantee the other person will
change his or her behavior and give you what you want, but it will help you
establish limits and boundaries with others. Passive Communication or Behavior
Passive communication and behavior : involves allowing your own rights to be
violated by failing to express honest feelings, thoughts, and beliefs, or by
expressing your thoughts and Assertive Communication (continued) feelings in an
apologetic manner that others can easily disregard. The messages you
communicate might be: “I don’t count; you can take advantage of me.” “My
thoughts and feelings don’t matter; only yours do.”
Aggressive Communication and Behavior: Aggressive communication and
behavior involves communicating in a demanding, abrasive, or hostile way. It is
insensitive to others’ rights, feelings and beliefs. The usual goals of aggression are
domination and winning, forcing the other person to lose. Some people mistakenly
think they are being “assertive” when in fact they are being aggressive.
Passive – Aggressive : Passive-Aggressive communication involves expressing
aggressive feelings in an indirect way through passive resistance, rather than by
openly confronting an issue. Examples include: sulking; ignoring the other person;
complaining behind the other person’s back; procrastinating; deliberately being
late or slow; intentional poor performance; acting in a way that will frustrate
others; and ‘acting innocent’ when you have done something to hurt someone.
Four Essential Steps to Assertive Communication
1. Tell the person what you think about their behavior without accusing them.
2. Tell them how you feel when they behave a certain way.
3. Tell them how their behavior affects you and your relationship with them.
4. Tell them what you would prefer them to do instead.

Learning to be more assertive

People develop different styles of communication based on their life experiences.
Your style may be so ingrained that you're not even aware of what it is. People
tend to stick to the same communication style over time. But if you want to change
your communication style, you can learn to communicate in healthier and more
effective ways.
Here are some tips to help you become more assertive:
Assess your style. Do you voice your opinions or remain silent? Do you say yes to
additional work even when your plate is full? Are you quick to judge or blame? Do
people seem to dread or fear talking to you? Understand your style before you
begin making changes.
Use 'I' statements. Using "I" statements lets others know what you're thinking or
feeling without sounding accusatory. For instance, say, "I disagree," rather than,
"You're wrong." If you have a request, say "I would like you to help with this"
rather than "You need to do this." Keep your requests simple and specific.
Practice saying no. If you have a hard time turning down requests, try saying, "No,
I can't do that now." Don't hesitate — be direct. If an explanation is appropriate,
keep it brief.
Rehearse what you want to say. If it's challenging to say what you want or think,
practice typical scenarios you encounter. Say what you want to say out loud. It
may help to write it out first, too, so you can practice from a script. Consider role-
playing with a friend or colleague and ask for blunt feedback.
Use body language. Communication isn't just verbal. Act confident even if you
aren't feeling it. Keep an upright posture, but lean forward a bit. Make regular eye
contact. Maintain a neutral or positive facial expression. Don't cross your arms or
legs. Practice assertive body language in front of a mirror or with a friend or
colleague.
Keep emotions in check. Conflict is hard for most people. Maybe you get angry or
frustrated, or maybe you feel like crying. Although these feelings are normal, they
can get in the way of resolving conflict. If you feel too emotional going into a
situation, wait a bit if possible. Then work on remaining calm. Breathe slowly.
Keep your voice even and firm.
Start small. At first, practice your new skills in situations that are low risk. For
instance, try out your assertiveness on a partner or friend before tackling a difficult
situation at work. Evaluate yourself afterward and tweak your approach as
necessary.
Accepting responsibilities and being able to delegate to others. See our page
on Delegation Skills Impression Formation
Impression formation is the process by which we form an overall impression of
someone’s character and abilities based on available information about their traits
and behaviors.
In social psychology, the term person perception refers to the different mental
processes that we use to form impressions of other people. This includes not just
how we form these impressions, but the different conclusions we make about other
people based on our impressions.
What Information Do We Use to Form Impressions?
Obviously, person perception can be a very subjective process that can be impacted
by a number of variables. Factors that can influence the impressions you form of
other people include the characteristics of the person you are observing, the context
of the situation, your own personal traits and your past experiences.
People often form impressions of others very quickly with only minimal
information. We frequently base our impressions on the roles and social norms we
expect from people. For example, you might form an impression of a city bus
driver based on how you would anticipate that a person in that role to behave,
considering individual personality characteristics only after you have formed this
initial impression.
Physical cues can also play an important role. If you see a woman dressed in a
professional-looking suit, you might immediately assume that she works in a
formal setting, perhaps at a law firm or bank. The salience of the information we
perceive is also important. Generally, we tend to focus on the most obvious points
rather than noting background information.
Social Categorization
One of the mental shortcuts that we use in person perception is known as social
categorization. In the social categorization process, we mentally categorize people
into different groups based on common characteristics. Sometimes this process
occurs consciously, but for the most part, social categorizations happen
automatically and unconsciously. Some of the most common grouping people use
include age, gender, occupation, and race
Implicit Personality Theories
An implicit personality theory is a collection of beliefs and assumptions that we
have about how certain traits are linked to other characteristics and behaviors.
Once we know something about a cardinal trait, we assume that the person also
exhibits other traits that are commonly linked to that key characteristic.
Prejudice
Prejudice is an affective feeling towards a person based on that person's perceived
group membership. The word is often used to refer to a preconceived, usually
unfavourable, evaluation of another person based on that person's political
affiliation, sex, gender, beliefs, values, social,class, age, disability, religion, sexuali
ty, race/ethnicity, language, nationality, beauty, occupation, education, criminality, 
sport team affiliation or other personal characteristics
Prejudice can have a strong influence on how people behave and interact with
others, particularly with those who are different from them. Prejudice is a baseless
and usually negative attitude toward members of a group. Common features of
prejudice include negative feelings, stereotyped beliefs, and a
tendency to discriminate against members of the group. While specific definitions
of prejudice given by social scientists often differ, most agree that it involves
prejudgments that are usually negative about members of a group.
When people hold prejudicial attitudes toward others, they tend to view everyone
who fits into a certain group as being "all the same." They paint every individual
who holds particular characteristics or beliefs with a very broad brush and fail to
really look at each person as a unique individual.

Prejudice and Stereotyping

When prejudice occurs, stereotyping, discrimination, and bullying may also result.
In many cases, prejudices are based on stereotypes.
A stereotype is a simplified assumption about a group based on prior experiences
or beliefs.
Stereotypes can be positive ("women are nurturing") or negative ("teenagers are
lazy"). Stereotypes can not only lead to faulty beliefs, but they can also result in
both prejudice and discrimination.
According to psychologist Gordon Allport, prejudice and stereotypes emerge in
part as a result of normal human thinking. In order to make sense of the world
around us, it's important to sort information into mental categories. "The human
mind must think with the aid of categories," Allport explained in his book, The
Nature of Prejudice. "Once formed, categories are the basis for normal
prejudgment. We cannot possibly avoid this process. Orderly living depends upon
it."
Prejudice and Stereotyping Are Mental Mistakes
In other words, we depend upon our ability to place people, ideas, and objects into
different categories in order to make the world simpler and easier to understand.
We are simply inundated with too much information to sort through all of it in a
logical, methodical, and rational fashion. Being able to quickly categorize
information allows us to interact and react quickly, but it also leads to mistakes.
Prejudice and stereotyping are just two examples of the mental mistakes that result
from our tendency to quickly categorize information in the world around us.
Prejudiced responses toward others can range from making unfair judgments and
harboring unkind feelings to brutal attacks and, at its most extreme, genocide.
Prejudice can be overt and unmistakable, but it can also be subtle and difficult to
detect. Prejudice takes many forms, and the nature of prejudice can change over
time.
 Unit III

PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO EDUCATION

LEARNING

Meaning and Nature:

Learning is a key process in human behaviour. All living is learning. If we
compare the simple, crude ways in which a child feels and behaves, with the
complex modes of adult behaviour, his skills, habits, thought, sentiments and the
like- we will know what difference learning has made to the individual.
The individual is constantly interacting with and influenced by the environment.
This experience makes him to change or modify his behaviour in order to deal
effectively with it. Therefore, learning is a change in behaviour, influenced by
previous behaviour. As stated above the skills, knowledge, habits, attitudes,
interests and other personality characteristics are all the result of learning.
Learning is defined as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs
as a result of practice and experience”. This definition has three important
elements.
a. Learning is a change in behaviour—better or worse.
b. It is a change that takes place through practice or experience, but changes due to
growth or maturation are not learning.
c. This change in behaviour must be relatively permanent, and it must last a fairly
long time.
All learning involves activities. These activities involve either physical or mental
activities. They may be simple mental activities or complex, involving various
muscles, bones, etc. So also the mental activities may be very simple involving one
or two activities of mind or complex which involve higher mental activities.
What activities are learned by the individual refer to types of learning. For
example, habits, skills, facts, etc. There are different types of learning. Some of the
important and common learning activities are explained here.
Types of Learning:

1. Motor learning:
Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities. The
individual has to learn them in order to maintain his regular life, for example
walking, running, skating, driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve the
muscular coordination.
2. Verbal learning:
This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication devices
we use. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in
such activities. We use words for communication.
3. Concept learning:
It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes like
thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from childhood.
For example, when we see a dog and attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that the word
dog refers to a particular animal. Concept learning involves two processes, viz.
abstraction and generalisation. This learning is very useful in recognising,
identifying things.
4. Discrimination learning:
Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate response to
these stimuli is called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different
vehicles like bus, car, ambulance, etc.
5. Learning of principles:
Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics, grammar, etc.
in order to manage their work effectively. These principles always show the
relationship between two or more concepts. Example: formulae, laws, associations,
correlations, etc.
6. Problem solving:
This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive
abilities-such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc.
This is very useful to overcome difficult problems encountered by the people.
7. Attitude learning:
Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behaviour. We
develop different attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects and
everything we know. Our behaviour may be positive or negative depending upon
our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards her profession, patients, etc.
Theories of Learning:
Psychologists have tried to explain how people learn and why they learn. They
have conducted many experiments on animals and children and come to certain
definite conclusions which explain the modes of learning.
These are called as theories of learning. In many books, these explanations are
treated as kinds of learning. In a sense it is true. But the term learning is very
comprehensive. It covers a wide range of activities which cannot be explained
within a limited framework. There are many theories explaining modes of learning.
Important among them are:
Trial and Error Learning Theory:
This theory was developed by an American psychologist EL Thorndike (1874-
1949). He argues that learning takes place through trial and error method.
According to him learning is a gradual process where the individual will make
many attempts to learn. The essence of this theory is-as the trials increase, the
errors decrease.
This is possible because of association formed between sense impressions and
impulses to action. Such an association comes to be known as a ‘bond’ or a
‘connection, because it is these bonds or connections which become strengthened
or weakened in making and breaking of habits. According to this theory when an
individual is placed in a new situation, he makes a number of random movements.
Among them, those which are unsuccessful are eliminated and the successful ones
are fixed.
These random movements are not eliminated at once. In the first attempt their
number is very large, in the second attempt the number of errors diminishes and
the range of activity becomes narrower. Gradually the individual learns to avoid
unnecessary movements and reaches the goal. Improvement takes place through
repetition.
Thorndike studies the character of trial and error learning in a number of
experiments on cats-using a box which he called ‘puzzle box’. In one of the
experiments a hungry cat was placed in the box and the door was closed which
could be opened by pressing a Latch. A fish was placed outside the box in a plate.
The cat could see this fish. The cat was given 100 trials-ten in the morning and ten
in each afternoon for five days. The cat was fed at the end of each experimental
period and then was given nothing more to eat until after the next session. If,
succeeded in opening the door in any trial by chance, he went to eat food (fish). A
complete record was made of the cat’s behaviour during each trial.
In the beginning the cat made a number of random movements like biting, clawing,
dashing, etc. gradually in subsequent trials the cat reduced the incorrect responses
(errors), as it was in a position to manipulate the latch as soon as it was put in the
box.
This experiment revealed that the random movements were decreased gradually,
that is-as the trials increased the errors decreased. As the trials increased the
solution to open the door (pressing the latch) was discovered and at the end, the cat
could open the door with zero error. The time taken in each trial was eventually
reduced.
Thorndike conducted many experiments with maze and puzzle box learning in
which cats and rats were used. He has demonstrated that through numerous trials
the animal learns much and gradually improves his effort.
We all learn many skills like swimming, cycling, riding, etc., through this method.
Children learn to sit, stand, walk, and run by this method only. However, this
method involves considerable waste of time and effort.
Learning by Conditioning:(classical conditioning)
In literal sense, conditioning means ‘getting used’ to, or ‘adjusted ‘to a new
situation, or a stimulus. It is a process of substituting the original stimulus by a new
one and connecting the response with it. There are two types of conditioning
theories:
1. Classical conditioning:
This method of conditioning got its name from the fact that, it is a kind of learning
situation that existed in the early classical experiments of Ivan P Pavlov (1849-
1936), Russian physiologist who was awarded Nobel Prize, in 1904 for his
experiments.
Pavlov designed an apparatus to measure the quantity of saliva produced in
response to food (meat power). At the beginning of his experiment Pavlov noted
that no saliva flowed when he rang the bell. He then trained the dog by sounding
the bell, and shortly afterwards presenting food.
After the sound of the bell had been paired with food a few times, he tested the
effects of the training by measuring the amount of saliva that flowed when he rang
the bell and did not present food. He found that some saliva was produced in
response to the sound of the bell alone. He then resumed the training-paired
presentation of bell and food a few times and then tested again with the bell alone.
As the training continued, the amount of saliva on tests with the bell alone
increased. Thus, after training the dog’s mouth watered-salivated- whenever the
bell was sounded. This is what was learned; it is the conditioned response.
This theory states that CS (bell) becomes a substitute after pairing with UCS (food)
and acquires the capacity to elicit a response. It is because the association
(conditioning) is formed between CS and UCS. This may be symbolically
presented as follows:
UCS<———————————à UCR
(Food) (Saliva)
↓ (Conditioning)
CS<————————————-à CR
(Bell) (Saliva)
Sub-principles of Classical Conditioning:

There are certain sub-principles which explain the different phenomena of this
experiment.
a. Extinction and spontaneous recovery:
Extinction means cessation of a response. The strength of the CS gradually
decreases when it is presented alone and not followed by UCS for a number of
trails. This process is called ‘extinction’. In this experiment when only bell is
presented without food for a number of trials, the dog stopped salivation gradually.
But when the CS (bell) was paired again with UCS (food) for some trials, the CR
(salivation) recovered. This is known as ‘spontaneous recovery’. In spontaneous
recovery the dog required less number of trials than the first time, because the
association between CS and UCS still existed in the brain of the animal.
b. Stimulus generalization:
A tendency to respond to a stimulus which is similar to original one is called
stimulus generalization, the greater the similarity, the more the generalization. In
this experiment, the dog started salivating even for the sound of a buzzer which
was similar to bell.
c. Stimulus discrimination:
When there is much difference between two stimuli, the animal can discriminate
between the two. For example, if the dog is conditioned to salivate at the signal of
red light, it will not salivate when green light is presented.
d. Higher order conditioning:
If a ‘light’ is presented followed by bell and then by food for a number of trials, the
dog will start salivating to light itself. This phenomenon is called higher order
condition.
All these principles are very useful in behaviour therapy. Conditioning is not
confined only to the laboratory.
In our day-to- day’s life we come across many instances of such learning. For
example, a small child who does not know, touches a burning candle, it gives him
a painful experience and withdraws his hand. Later this experience will make him
withdraw from burning objects and avoid them all together.
Conditioning is used as psychotherapeutic technique very effectively in the
treatment of abnormal behaviours such as phobias, alcoholism, enuresis, etc. These
are called behaviour modification techniques. Watson and others have conducted
many experiments to prove the usefulness of this method.
2. Operant Conditioning:

This method of conditioning was developed by an American psychologist BF

Skinner. This theory is also known as ‘Instrumental conditioning’, because the
animals use certain operations or actions as instruments to find solution.
Skinner conducted his famous experiment by placing a hungry rat in a box called
after his name ‘Skinner box’. This box was containing a lever and a food tray in a
corner of the box. It was so arranged, that the animal was free to move inside the
box, but the pressing of the lever would get the animal a pallet of food in the tray
as reinforcement.
Arrangement was also made to record the number of pressings of the lever by a
mechanical device. It was found in the beginning that the rat pressed the lever
occasionally and used to get food as reinforcement for each pressing.
Gradually, as the animal learnt the pressing of lever would give some food, it
repeated the responses very rapidly. This rapid increase in pressing the lever is the
indication of the animal conditioned to get food.
In day-to-day’s life also, much learning takes place in animals as well as in human
beings by this method. The reinforcement will be the motivating factor. It will
make the organism to repeat its action.
It is on the basis of these experiments, Skinner made his famous statement
“Rewarded behaviour is repeated”. Instrumental conditioning involves more
activity by the learner than classical conditioning. Skinner conducted his
experiments on different animals like pigeons, rats, etc.
Reinforcement which is the most important aspect of this experiment is divided
into two types: positive reinforcement is used in reward training. Negative
reinforcement-like punishment is used to stop undesired responses or behaviours.
Operant conditioning is useful in shaping undesirable behaviour and also in
modification of behaviour.
This is also useful in training of mentally retarded children to learn dressing, eating
and toilet training skills, treatment of phobias, drug and alcohol addictions, and
psychotherapy and to teach needed behaviour in children. Further, these
experiments have proved that intermittent reinforcement yields better results than
continuous reinforcement.
Learning by Insight:

Many times learning proceeds by the more efficient process of trying those
methods which are seem to have a relation to solution. This is possible by
understanding or perception of the situation.
Learning by perceiving the relationship in the scene and understanding the
situation is insightful learning. This theory was developed by a psychologist
known as Wolf gang Kohler, who belonged to Gestalt school of psychology.
According to Gestalt theory—perception of a situation as a ‘whole’ gives better
understanding than sum total of its parts. That is, the situation viewed as a whole
will definitely look different from that, viewed through its parts.
Kohler conducted his most famous experiments on chimpanzee- called Sultan. In
the experiment, Sultan was put in a cage and a banana was placed at some distance
outside the cage. Then the chimpanzee was given two sticks, so constructed that
one stick could be fitted into another and make the stick longer.
The hungry Sultan first attempted with its hands to get the banana. Then he took
one of the sticks and tried to pull the banana nearer, then tried with other stick, but
failed to reach it. By this effort, the chimpanzee became tired and left the attempts
to reach banana and started playing with sticks.
While playing so, one of the sticks got fitted into the other and the stick became
lengthier. Immediately Sultan became elated and pulled the banana with this long
stick and ate it. This ‘sudden flash of idea’ to reach food with longer stick was
called as ‘Insight’, by Kohler.
He conducted many experiments to prove that learning takes place also by insight
and not only by trial and error. He concluded that the occurrence of insight to find
solution to a problem is possible by perception of the whole situation.
Kohler conducted many experiments on this line of learning to prove that, just trial
and error method is not enough to find solution for many complex problems.
Trial and error or association through connectionism and conditioning may account
for simple acquisition of knowledge, skills, interests, habits and other personality
characteristics. But it is absolutely insufficient for solving complex problems.
It is here the method of insightful learning is very useful. Because it involves many
higher mental processes such as thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc.
Insight occurs, when the individual sees in a flash, the solution to his problem or
difficulty. It is not blind or stupid learning. It is an intelligent way of learning. In
many occasions people try to size up the situation, things and arrive at a
conclusion. With experience man is able to solve problems better and sooner.
He exercises his discrimination ability in solving problems, and learning becomes
a matter of insight rather than of trial and error. Archimedes’s example of’ Aha’
experience (eureka) explained in creative thinking is the appropriate example for
occurrence of insight.
Learning by Imitation:
It is the simplest method of learning. Many of our day-to-day’s activities are learnt
by imitating others. For example, the way we eat, drink, walk, talk, dress, etc, are
all learnt by imitating others. We observe and watch what and how other people do
certain activities and imitate them.
We observe the demonstrations given by an expert, imitate his movements and
learn them. By copying the behaviour of others, people avoid waste of time and
effort of trial and error method of learning. For example, a boy observes the way of
holding a cricket bat, the movements of an expert player, imitates the same and
learns.
Psychologists like Millar and Dollard have tried to show that the tendency to
imitate is itself a learned response and if reinforced, the individual will be more
likely to continue to imitate.
Many people believe that imitation is a lower form type of learning. Still others
argue that imitation can never lead to novel responses and there will be no chance
to use individual’s creativity or originality. But at the same time many
educationists believe that only the imitative individual can learn better. Whatever
may be the opinion it is quite obvious that we learn many things by imitation.
Laws of Learning:
EL Thorndike has explained three laws of learning called Primary laws and in
addition to these, he has also framed 5 subsidiary laws in connection with his trial
and error learning theory.
Primary laws:
These are the most important laws, which explain the basic aspects of learning.
They are:
1. Law of readiness:
By readiness means the organism is ready to respond or act. This is more essential
prerequisite for learning.
This indicates that the animal or human being is motivated to learn. This condition
of readiness has two effects— satisfaction and annoyance. When the animal is
ready to act- if permitted- it gives pleasure. If it is not permitted, it feels annoyed.
2. Law of exercise:
This law is also known as law of frequency. Frequency refers to number of
repetitions of learning. Thorndike believed that repeated exercising of a response
strengthens its connection with stimulus.
This aspect refers to law of use and disuse, which explains that, anything not in use
will perish. So also if the response is not repeated, its bond with stimulus gets
weakened. This is also according to the statement that ‘practice makes man
perfect’.
In Thorndike’s experiment the cat becomes perfect after repeating the response
more number of times, i.e. it learnt to open the door without committing any error.
3. Law of effect:
This law states that when a connection is accomplished by satisfying effect- its
strength is increased. By this, Thorndike meant that the probability of its
occurrence is greater. In his experiment if the hungry cat succeeded in opening the
door, would get its favourable dish to eat.
This had a positive effect on its response. Rewards always strengthen connections
between stimuli and responses, and on the other hand, punishment weakens
connections.
Secondary laws:
In addition to the three primary laws explained above, Thorndike has given five
secondary or subsidiary laws also.
They are as follows:
a. Law of multiple response:
It means when a response fails to elicit a desired effect, the learner will try with
new responses until the goal is reached.
b- Law of set or attitude:
Mental set or positive attitude is very important in any learning.
c. Law of associative shifting:
This is nothing but shifting of the response to a new situation which is similar to
the earlier one. Because the fundamental notion is that, if a response can be kept
intact through a series of changes in stimulating situation, it may finally be given to
a new situation.
d. Law of prepotency of elements:
This law states that the learner is able to react in a selected way, only to the salient
elements of the problem and not for other unimportant elements.
e. Law of response by analogy:
It means comparing a new situation to the previously learned one and thus giving a
response by analogy.
As stated above, Thorndike formulated these laws on the basis of his experiments.
According to the law of readiness, the cat was ready to learn, because it was
hungry. This hunger motivated the cat to learn to open the door.
According to the second law, the cat was repeatedly given trials and exercise
which strengthened its learning. Finally on each trial the cat was given
reinforcement in the form of fish

Principles of learning
Educational psychology & Educational psychologists and have identified several
principles of learning, also referred to as laws of learning which seem generally
applicable to the learning process. These principles have been discovered, tested,
and used in practical situations. They provide additional insight into what makes
people learn most effectively.Edward Thorndike developed the first three "Laws of
learning:" Readiness,Exercise and effect.

Readiness
Since learning is an active process, students must have adequate rest, health, and
physical ability. Basic needs of students must be satisfied before they are ready or
capable of learning. Students who are exhausted or in ill health cannot learn much.
If they are distracted by outside responsibilities, interests, or worries, have
overcrowded schedules, or other unresolved issues, students may have little
interest in learning. For example, we may identify the situation of an academic
examination of a school, in which the cause of securing good marks in various
subjects leads to mental and emotional readiness of students to do more hard
labour in acquiring knowledge.
Exercise
Every time practice occurs, learning continues. These include student recall,
review and summary, and manual drill and physical applications. All of these serve
to create learning habits. The instructor must repeat important items of subject
matter at reasonable intervals, and provide opportunities for students to practice
while making sure that this process is directed toward a goal. But in some or many
cases, there is no need for regular practice if the skill is acquired once. For instance
if we have learnt cycling once, we will not forget the knowledge or skill even if we
aren't exercising it for a long time.

Effect

However, every learning experience should contain elements that leave the student
with some good feelings. A student’s chance of success is definitely increased if
the learning experience is a pleasant one.

Primacy
.
Primacy, The instructor must present subject matter in a logical order, step by
step, making sure the students have already learned the preceding step. If the task
is learned in isolation, if it is not initially applied to the overall performance, or if it
must be relearned, the process can be confusing and time consuming. Preparing
and following a lesson plan facilitates delivery of the subject matter correctly the
very first time.

Recency
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are
best remembered. Conversely, the further a student is removed time-wise from a
new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember.

Intensity
The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained. A sharp,
clear, vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine
or boring experience. The principle of intensity implies that a student will learn
more from the real thing than from a substitute. Examples, analogies, and personal
experiences also make learning come to life. Instructors should make full use of
the senses (hearing, sight, touch, taste, smell, balance, rhythm, depth perception,
and others).
Freedom
Since learning is an active process, students must have freedom: freedom of
choice, freedom of action, freedom to bear the results of action—these are the three
great freedoms that constitute personal responsibility. If no freedom is granted,
students may have little interest in learning.

Requirements
The law of requirement states that "we must have something to obtain or do
something." It can be an ability, skill, instrument or anything that may help us to
learn or gain something. A starting point or root'

Memory
Memory is the ability to take in information, store it, and recall it at a later time. In
psychology, memory is broken into three stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Stages of memory: The three stages of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Problems can occur at any stage of the process.

The Memory Process

1. Encoding (or registration): the process of receiving, processing, and

combining information. Encoding allows information from the outside world
to reach our senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli. In this first
stage we must change the information so that we may put the memory into
the encoding process.
 2. Storage: the creation of a permanent record of the encoded information.
Storage is the second memory stage or process in which we maintain
information over periods of time.
3. Retrieval (or recall, or recognition): the calling back of stored information in
response to some cue for use in a process or activity. The third process is the
retrieval of information that we have stored. We must locate it and return it to
our consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the type
of information.

Problems can occur at any stage of the process, leading to anything from
forgetfulness to amnesia. Distraction can prevent us from encoding information
initially; information might not be stored properly, or might not move from short-
term to long-term storage; and/or we might not be able to retrieve the information
once it’s stored

Types of Memory

Sensory Memory

Sensory memory allows individuals to retain impressions of sensory information

for a brief time after the original stimulus has ceased. It allows individuals to
remember great sensory detail about a complex stimulus immediately following its
presentation. Sensory memory is an automatic response considered to be outside of
cognitive control. The information represented in this type of memory is the “raw
data” which provides a snapshot of a person’s overall sensory experience.
Information from sensory memory has the shortest retention time, ranging from
mere milliseconds to five seconds. It is retained just long enough for it to be
transferred to short-term (working) memory.

In sensory memory, no manipulation of the incoming information occurs as it is

transferred quickly to working memory. The amount of information is greatly
reduced during this transfer because the capacity of working memory is not large
enough to cope with all the input coming from our sense organs.

Types of Sensory Memory

It is assumed that there is a subtype of sensory memory for each of the five major
senses (touch, taste, sight, hearing, and smell); however, only three of these types
have been extensively studied: echoic memory, iconic memory, and haptic
memory.
Iconic Memory

Sensory input to the visual system goes into iconic memory, so named because the
mental representations of visual stimuli are referred to as icons. Iconic memory has
a duration of about 100 ms. One of the times that iconic memory is noticeable is
when we see “light trails.” This is the phenomenon when bright lights move
rapidly at night and you perceive them as forming a trail; this is the image that is
represented in iconic memory.

Echoic Memory

Echoic memory is the branch of sensory memory used by the auditory system.
Echoic memory is capable of holding a large amount of auditory information, but
only for 3–4 seconds. This echoic sound is replayed in the mind for this brief
amount of time immediately after the presentation of the auditory stimulus.

Haptic Memory

Haptic memory is the branch of sensory memory used by the sense of touch.
Sensory receptors all over the body detect sensations like pressure, itching, and
pain, which are briefly held in haptic memory before vanishing or being
transported to short-term memory. This type of memory seems to be used when
assessing the necessary forces for gripping and interacting with familiar objects.
Haptic memory seems to decay after about two seconds. Evidence of haptic
memory has only recently been identified and not as much is known about its
characteristics compared to iconic memory.

Short-Term Memory

Short-term memory is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in an

active, readily available state for a brief period of time. It is separate from our
long-term memory, where lots of information is stored for us to recall at a later
time. Unlike sensory memory, it is capable of temporary storage. How long this
storage lasts depends on conscious effort from the individual; without rehearsal or
active maintenance, the duration of short-term memory is believed to be on the
order of seconds.

Capacity of Short-Term Memory

Short-term memory acts as a scratchpad for temporary recall of information. For
instance, in order to understand this sentence you need to hold in your mind the
beginning of the sentence as you read the rest. Short-term memory decays rapidly
and has a limited capacity.

The psychologist George Miller suggested that human short-term memory has a

forward memory span of approximately seven items plus or minus two.

For example, the ability to recall words in order depends on a number of

characteristics of these words: fewer words can be recalled when the words have
longer spoken duration (this is known as the word-length effect) or when their
speech sounds are similar to each other (this is called the phonological similarity
effect). More words can be recalled when the words are highly familiar or occur
frequently in the language. Chunking of information can also lead to an increase in
short-term memory capacity. For example, it is easier to remember a hyphenated
phone number than a single long number because it is broken into three chunks
instead of existing as ten digits.

Rehearsal is the process in which information is kept in short-term memory by

mentally repeating it. When the information is repeated each time, that information
is re-entered into the short-term memory, thus keeping that information for another
10 to 20 seconds, the average storage time for short-term memory. Distractions
from rehearsal often cause disturbances in short-term memory retention. This
accounts for the desire to complete a task held in short-term memory as soon as
possible.

Working Memory

Though the term “working memory” is often used synonymously with “short-term
memory,” working memory is related to but actually distinct from short-term
memory. It holds temporary data in the mind where it can be manipulated.
Baddeley and Hitch’s 1974 model of working memory is the most commonly
accepted theory of working memory today. According to Baddeley, working
memory has a phonological loop to preserve verbal data, a visuospatial scratchpad
to control visual data, and a central executive to disperse attention between them.

Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory is used for the storage of information over long periods of
time, ranging from a few hours to a lifetime.
  Long-term memory is the final, semi-permanent stage of memory; it has a
theoretically infinite capacity, and information can remain there indefinitely.
 Long-term memories can be categorized as either explicit or implicit
memories.
 Explicit memories involve facts, concepts, and events, and must be recalled
consciously.
 Explicit memories can be either semantic (abstract, fact-based) or episodic
(based on a specific event).
 Implicit memories are procedures for completing motor action

Long-term memory is the final, semi-permanent stage of memory. Unlike sensory

and short-term memory, long-term memory has a theoretically infinite capacity,
and information can remain there indefinitely. Long-term memory has also been
called reference memory, because an individual must refer to the information in
long-term memory when performing almost any task. Long-term memory can be
broken down into two categories: explicit and implicit memory.

Explicit Memory

Explicit memory, also known as conscious or declarative memory, involves

memory of facts, concepts, and events that require conscious recall of the
information. In other words, the individual must actively think about retrieving the
information from memory. This type of information is explicitly stored and
retrieved—hence its name. Explicit memory can be further subdivided into
semantic memory, which concerns facts, and episodic memory, which concerns
primarily personal or autobiographical information.

Semantic Memory

Semantic memory involves abstract factual knowledge, such as “Albany is the

capital of New York.” It is for the type of information that we learn from books
and school: faces, places, facts, and concepts. You use semantic memory when you
take a test. Another type of semantic memory is called a script. Scripts are like
blueprints of what tends to happen in certain situations. For example, what usually
happens if you visit a restaurant? You get the menu, you order your meal, you eat
it, and then you pay the bill. Through practice, you learn these scripts and encode
them into semantic memory.
Episodic Memory

Episodic memory is used for more contextualized memories. They are generally
memories of specific moments, or episodes, in one’s life. As such, they include
sensations and emotions associated with the event, in addition to the who, what,
where, and when of what happened. An example of an episodic memory would be
recalling your family’s trip to the beach. Autobiographical memory (memory for
particular events in one’s own life) is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a
subset of, episodic memory. One specific type of autobiographical memory is a
flashbulb memory, which is a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid “snapshot” of
the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or
emotionally arousing) news was heard. For example, many people remember
exactly where they were and what they were doing when they heard of the terrorist
attacks on September 11, 2001. This is because it is a flashbulb memory.

Semantic and episodic memory are closely related; memory for facts can be
enhanced with episodic memories associated with the fact, and vice versa. For
example, the answer to the factual question “Are all apples red?” might be recalled
by remembering the time you saw someone eating a green apple. Likewise,
semantic memories about certain topics, such as football, can contribute to more
detailed episodic memories of a particular personal event, like watching a football
game. A person that barely knows the rules of football will remember the various
plays and outcomes of the game in much less detail than a football expert.

Implicit Memory

In contrast to explicit (conscious) memory, implicit (also called “unconscious” or

“procedural”) memory involves procedures for completing actions. These actions
develop with practice over time. Athletic skills are one example of implicit
memory. You learn the fundamentals of a sport, practice them over and over, and
then they flow naturally during a game. Rehearsing for a dance or musical
performance is another example of implicit memory. Everyday examples include
remembering how to tie your shoes, drive a car, or ride a bicycle. These memories
are accessed without conscious awareness—they are automatically translated into
actions without us even realizing it. As such, they can often be difficult to teach or
explain to other people. Implicit memories differ from the semantic scripts
described above in that they are usually actions that involve movement and motor
coordination, whereas scripts tend to emphasize social norms or behaviors.
Memory  Principles
1.INTEREST  – In  order  to  remember  something  thoroughly,  you  must  be
interested  in  it.  You  must  have  a  reason   to  learn  it.  Seek  ways  to  make  it
personal.
2.INTENTTO REMEMBER  – has  much  to  do  with  whether  or  not  you
remember  something.  A  key  factor  to   remembering  is  having  a  positive
attitude  that  you  will  remember.  Take  notes.  Predict  test  questions.  Use  a  
concentration  checklist;  every  time  your  mind  wanders,  put  a  check  on  this
sheet.  Eventually,  you  will  program   your  mind  to  pay  attention
3.BASIC BACKGROUND  – Your  understanding  of  new  material  depends,  to
a  great  degree,  on  how  much  you   already  know  about  the  subject.  The
more  you  increase  your  basic  knowledge,  the  easier  it  is  to  build  new  
knowledge  on  this  background.  Before  reading  an assignment,  preview  it.
Try  to  recall  what  you  already  know.
4.SELECTIVITY  – You  must  determine  what  is  most  important,  and  select
those  parts  to  study  and  learn.  You   cannot  remember  everything  about
everything.  Look  for  verbal andnon‐verbal  clues  during  lecture.  Make  
flashcards.  Devise  sample  tests.
5.MEANINGFUL ORGANIZATION    – You  can  learn  and  remember  better
if  you  group  ideas  into  meaningful   categories.  Search  for  ways  to  organize
information  into  categories  that  are  meaningful  to  you.  Alphabetize  a   list.
Use  a  variety  of  mnemonic  devices.
6.RECITATION  – Saying  ideas  aloud  in  your  own  words  is  one  of  the
most  powerful  tools  you  have  to  transfer   information  from  short-‐term  to
long-‐term  memory.  When  you  finish  reading  a  paragraph/section  in  a
textbook,   stop  and  recite.
7.MENTAL VISUALIZATION  – Another  powerful  memory  principle  is
making  a  mental  picture  of  what  needs  to  be   remembered.  By  visualizing,
you  use  an  entirely  different  part  of  the  brain  than  you  do  when  reading  or
listening.  Words  are  processed  on  the left  side  of  the  brain.  Pictures  are
processed  on  the  right.  Use  both  sides!
8.ASSOCIATION  – Memory  is  increased  when  facts  to  be  learned  are
associated  with  something  familiar  to  you.  By   recalling  something  you
already  know  and  making  a  link  to  the  "brain  file"  that  contains  that
information,  you   should  be  able  to  remember  new  information  more
efficiently.
9.CONSOLIDATION  – Your  brain  must  have  time  for  new  information  to
soak  in.  Take  notes  and  review  them.  Ask   questions.  Make  flashcards.
Make  practice  tests.
10.DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE  – A  series  of  shorter  study  sessions
distributed  over  several  days  is  preferable  to  fewer,   but  longer  study
sessions.  After  each  hour  of  study,  take  a 10‐minute  break.  Have  a
scheduled  time  to  study   each  subject.   Make  use  of  daylighthours  and  time
you  usually  waste.  Study  immediately before  and  after  class.

MEMORY-ENHANCING STRATEGIES

Rehearsal, or the conscious repetition of information to be remembered (Craik &

Watkins, 1973). Think about how you learned your multiplication tables as a child.
You may recall that 6 x 6 = 36, 6 x 7 = 42, and 6 x 8 = 48. Memorizing these facts
is rehearsal.
 Chunking: you organize information into manageable bits or chunks (Bodie,
Powers, & Fitch-Hauser, 2006). Chunking is useful when trying to remember
information like dates and phone numbers. Instead of trying to remember
5205550467, you remember the number as 520-555-0467. So, if you met an
interesting person at a party and you wanted to remember his phone number, you
would naturally chunk it, and you could repeat the number over and over, which is
the rehearsal strategy. 
 Elaborative rehearsal: a technique in which you think about the meaning of the
new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory
Mnemonic devices are memory aids that help us organize information for
encoding. They are especially useful when we want to recall larger bits of
information such as steps, stages, phases, and parts of a system .

It seems the more vivid or unusual the mnemonic, the easier it is to remember. The
key to using any mnemonic successfully is to find a strategy that works for you.

Mental Stroll Method (“Method of Loci”):

A favorite method is to remember a list of items by taking a mental stroll through
one’s house, forming a visual image of each item at a particular location (the
method of loci).

 Pay Attention:

Attention is important for encoding. Impairment in attention e.g., in depression

may result in impaired encoding causing pseudodementia.

 Encode Information in More than One Way:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

The more elaborate the encoding of information, the more memorable it is.
Elaboration can be in many forms e.g., remembering a telephone number by sound
of the individual digits.

Add Meaning:
The more meaningful material is, the more likely it is to link up with information
already in long term memory. Meaningfulness also reduces the number of chunks
of information one has to learn.

Use Visual Memory:

Memory for pictures is often better than the memory for words.

Take Your Time:

If one has to remember large amounts of verbal material, leisurely learning, spread
out over several sessions will produce better results than rapid cramming.

8. Take Time Out:

If possible, minimize interference by using study breaks for rest or recreation.
Sleep is the ultimate way to reduce interference.

9. Over learn:
Over learning – Studying information even after you think you know it – is one of
the best ways to remember it.

10. Planning to Learn:
Plan a study schedule, regular rehearsal, subjective organization and retrieval cues,
testing oneself (feedback) and review help in memorizing (i.e., “PRC- Planning,
Rehearsal, Organization and “FRO” – Feedback, Review and Over- learning).
11. Avoiding Use of Drugs:
Alcohol, benzodiazepines, antihistaminics and other CNS depressants may impair
the memorizing process. Nootropics (Brain tonics) are not useful in normal
persons.

HOW TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY (memory techniques )

 Use elaborative rehearsal: In a famous article, Craik and Lockhart (1972)

discussed their belief that information we process more deeply goes into
long-term memory. Their theory is called levels of processing. If we want to
remember a piece of information, we should think about it more deeply and
link it to other information and memories to make it more meaningful. For
example, if we are trying to remember that the hippocampus is involved with
memory processing, we might envision a hippopotamus with excellent
memory and then we could better remember the hippocampus.
 Apply the self-reference effect: As you go through the process of
elaborative rehearsal, it would be even more beneficial to make the material
you are trying to memorize personally meaningful to you. In other words,
make use of the self-reference effect. Write notes in your own words. Write
definitions from the text, and then rewrite them in your own words. Relate the
material to something you have already learned for another class, or think
how you can apply the concepts to your own life. When you do this, you are
building a web of retrieval cues that will help you access the material when
you want to remember it.
 Don’t forget the forgetting curve: As you know, the information you learn
drops off rapidly with time. Even if you think you know the material, study it
again right before test time to increase the likelihood the information will
remain in your memory. Overlearning can help prevent storage decay.
 Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse: Review the material over time, in spaced and
organized study sessions. Organize and study your notes, and take practice
quizzes/exams. Link the new information to other information you already
know well.
 Be aware of interference: To reduce the likelihood of interference, study
during a quiet time without interruptions or distractions (like television or
music).
 Keep moving: Of course you already know that exercise is good for your
body, but did you also know it’s also good for your mind? Research suggests
that regular aerobic exercise (anything that gets your heart rate elevated) is
beneficial for memory (van Praag, 2008). Aerobic exercise promotes
 neurogenesis: the growth of new brain cells in the hippocampus, an area of
the brain known to play a role in memory and learning.
 Get enough sleep: While you are sleeping, your brain is still at work.
During sleep the brain organizes and consolidates information to be stored in
long-term memory (Abel & Bäuml, 2013).
 Make use of mnemonic devices: As you learned earlier in this chapter,
mnemonic devices often help us to remember and recall information. There
are different types of mnemonic devices, such as the acronym. An acronym is
a word formed by the first letter of each of the words you want to remember.
For example, even if you live near one, you might have difficulty recalling
the names of all five Great Lakes. What if I told you to think of the word
Homes? HOMES is an acronym that represents Huron, Ontario, Michigan,
Erie, and Superior: the five Great Lakes. Another type of mnemonic device is
an acrostic: you make a phrase of all the first letters of the words. For
example, if you are taking a math test and you are having difficulty
remembering the order of operations, recalling the following sentence will
help you: “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally,” because the order of
mathematical operations is Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication, Division,
Addition, Subtraction. There also are jingles, which are rhyming tunes that
contain key words related to the concept, such as i before e, except after c.

Unit IV
PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO THE FIELD OF WORK AND HEALTH
Choosing the right person to the
right job: 

The process of selecting the right person for the job has been more important. Mistakes are
costly. According to the experts, the term right person right job or job fit refers to “the
degree to which a person’s cognitive abilities, interests and personality dynamics fit those
required by the job.” 

Job fit is a positive orientation to the nature of the work to be performed, the characteristics
of the work environment, and the other demands and conditions of the work opportunity.
Job fit is where the passions and talents of the individual match those required by the work
and where the values of the individual are in sync with the values of the organization.
You’re doing what you do best and what you like doing with people who share your core
values. 

The following steps, if followed will help managers ensure they hire individuals
who are not only technically competent, but also are a great fit with the culture of
the department or organization. 

1. Write a specific, comprehensive job description, prior to advertising or interviewing

anyone: Gaining an agreement from several people on the team as to what are the
characteristics and job competencies that will be needed for someone to be successful in
this position. 

2. Hire for attitude, train for technical competence: If experience teaches you one thing
as a manager, it is this: People with great attitudes are willing to learn whatever it takes to
be successful in their positions. A technical expert with a bad attitude can ruin the
motivation and attitude of the whole team. 

3. Have multiple people on the team to interview the candidate one-on-one: The
following are the benefits of having a panel interview with experts. First, different
people see different strengths and different areas of concern in a candidate. Second,
multiple interviews usually require the candidate to come back on multiple visits. For
many reasons, poor candidates usually get filtered out of the multiple

interview process. Last, when multiple people have interviewed the candidate and
are in agreement about hiring the individual, more than one person feels
responsibility for the individual’s success. 
4. Ask open-ended questions in the interview: Open-ended questions yield much more
accurate information in an interview than closed-ended questions. For example, if the
position requires an individual who has extensive knowledge of Excel, an appropriate
question might be: “In which computer programs do you have a high level of expertise
and give me examples of projects.” An inappropriate question would be, “Have you ever
used Excel?” Most people who are being interviewed know the appropriate answer to that
question is “Yes.” Open-ended questions tend to yield more accurate and honest
responses. 

5. If you mis-hired, cut your losses early: Every manager has at least one story of hiring
the wrong person. If it is the wrong person, then immediately coach, counsel, or train the
new employee. If that does not work, terminate the relationship and start the process over.
In the majority of cases when we have worked with managers and supervisors who have
agreed they mis-hired, termination should have taken place in the first 90 days. When
termination does not occur within the first 90 days, more often than not, the problems tend
to multiply. Great managers and leaders have the guts to deal with the problem. 

6. Check references: This is a simple but important step that gets forgotten. By checking
references, you can gain insights to the candidate’s prior performance and work-related
attitude. We also know that when checking references for potential candidates, previous
employers are more apt to work around legalities for great candidates than they are for
marginal candidates. Sometimes you can learn a lot by what is not being said about a
candidate. 

7. Give a skills test: A simple skills test, like proofing a letter with errors, might make a
#1 candidate a #2 candidate. One good skills test is to ask candidates to write a letter to
the company that describes the type of training and information they anticipate needing if
hired. 

8. Assign a buddy: When bringing on a new hire, assign a fellow team member to help
ensure the new employee’s success in the organization. Many managers leave this task to
Human Resources; after all, HR does new employee orientation. While orientation is great
for a portion of their first day, after that new employees need fellow team members to
become buddies and supportive friends. 

9. Ensure needed tools are in place prior to the new hire’s first day on the job: To
have needed essentials in place, everything from a desk and a computer to business cards,
is a great way of saying “Welcome to the team.” 10. As the manager, take time to meet
with the new employee on a regular basis. Ask, “How is everything going?” and “Is there
anything else we can do to support you and ensure your success?” We are the first to
agree that hiring great candidates is as much an art as it is a science. By following the ten
steps listed above, you will increase your chances of successfully hiring the right
individual. 

Occupational Stress-

Stress is defined as any circumstances those threaten or are perceived to threaten one‘s
well-being and that thereby tax one‘s coping abilities. The threat may be to immediate
physical safety, long-range security, self-esteem, reputation, peace of mind, or many other
things that one values. 

The American Psychological Association defines stress as "any uncomfortable

emotional experience accompanied by predictable biochemical, physiological and
behavioral changes.” 

The word stress tends to spark images of overwhelming, traumatic crises. People may think
of tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes. Undeniably, major disasters of this sort
are extremely stressful events but many everyday events, such as waiting in line, having
car trouble, shopping for Christmas presents, misplacing your checkbook, and staring at
bills you can‘t pay, are also stressful. Researchers have found that everyday problems and
the minor nuisances of life are also important forms of stress. Richard Lazarus and his
colleagues developed a scale to measure everyday hassles. They have shown that routine
hassles may have significant harmful effects on mental and physical health. This may be
because of the cumulative nature of stress as it adds up. Routine stresses at home, at
school, and at work might be fairly benign individually, yet collectively they could create
great strain. 

Stress has been defined in different ways, conceived of as pressure from the environment,
then as strain within the person. It is the psychological and physical state that results when
the resources of the individual are not sufficient to cope with the demands and pressures of
the situation. Thus, stress is more likely in some situations than others and in some
individuals than others. Stress can undermine the achievement of goals, both for
individuals and for organisations. 

MAJOR TYPES OF
STRESS 
An enormous variety of events can be stressful for one person or another. One sensible
distinction involves differentiating between acute stressors and chronic stressors. Acute
stressors are threatening events that have a relatively short duration and a clear endpoint.
Examples would include dealing with the challenge of a major exam, or having your home
threatened by severe flooding. Chronic stressors are threatening events that have a
relatively long duration and no readily apparent time limit. Examples would include
persistent financial strains produced by huge credit card debts, ongoing pressures from a
hostile boss at work. 

Frustration: Frustration occurs in any situation in which the pursuit of some goal is
thwarted. In essence, you experience frustration when you want something and you
can‘t have it. Everyone has to deal with frustration virtually every day and some
frustrations can be sources of significant stress. Failures and losses are two common
kinds of frustration that are often highly stressful. Everyone fails in at least some of
their endeavors. Some people make failure almost inevitable by setting unrealistically
high goals for themselves. 

Conflict: Conflict occurs when two or more incompatible motivations or

behavioral impulses compete for expression. Conflicts come in three types – i)
approach-approach, ii) avoidance-avoidance, and iii) approach-avoidance. In an
approach-approach conflict a choice must be made between two attractive goals.
The problem, of course, is that you can choose just one of the two goals. Among
the three kinds of conflict, the approach-approach type tends to be the least
stressful. In an avoidance-avoidance conflict a choice must be made between two
unattractive goals. Obviously, avoidance-avoidance conflicts are most unpleasant
and highly stressful. In an approach-avoidance conflict a choice must be made
about whether to pursue a single goal that has both attractive and unattractive
aspects. Approach-avoidance conflicts are common and can be quite stressful. 
Pressure : At one time or another, most people have remarked that they‘re
―under pressure. Pressure involves expectations or demands that one behave in a
certain way. You are under pressure to perform when you‘re expected to execute
tasks and responsibilities quickly, efficiently, and successfully. 
The problem of stress Signs of stress can be seen in people's behaviour,
especially in changes in behaviour.
Acute responses to stress may be in the areas of feelings (for example, anxiety,
depression, irritability
fatigue), behaviour (for example, being withdrawn, aggressive, tearful,
unmotivated), thinking (for example, 
 difficulties of concentration and problem solving) or physical symptoms (for
example, palpitations, nausea, 
headaches). 
If stress persists, there are changes in neuro-endocrine, cardiovascular, autonomic
and
immunological functioning, leading to mental and physical ill health . 

Occupational Stress Model 

 Causes of stress: The antecedent of stress, or the so called stressors, affecting
today’s employees are found both outside and inside the organization, from the
groups that employees are influenced by and from employees themselves. Stress is
normal and often quite healthy however, when the ability to hope with stress
begins to let us down, then we may be on the road to burnout. Burnout is not a
problem of the people themselves but also of the social environment in which
people live.  
 Organizational stressor
 Extra organizational stressor
 Job stress
 Individual stressors & Group stressor

➢ Extra Organizational Stressor: Stressors outside workplace were related to

negative affect and feelings on the job. Extra stress includes societal/technological
change, globalization, the family, relocation economic financial condition, race and
gender, and residential or community conditions. 

➢ Organizational Stressor: Macro level stressor can be categorized into

administrative policies & Specific job stressors role ambiguity, conflict and overload,
job insecurityWorkfamily conflict, strategies, organizational structure and design,
organizational processes and working conditions.  
Programs such as reengineering, restructuring and downsizing have
become common place as the result of intense pressures to outperform the
competition. i.e The actual loss of jobs, or even mere threat of being laid off, can
be extremely stressful for employees
The survivors of downsizing often experience tremendous pressure
from the fear of future cuts the friends and colleagues and as increase in work-
load. 
➢ Group Stressor: The group or team can also be a potential source of stress
sometimes interpersonal conflict.. End-up in a “bullying” problem. ‘Bullying’ is defined
as “repeated, health-harming mistreatment that could involve verbal abuse, threatening,
humiliating or offensive behaviors or action; or work interface”. Bullying leads to stress
for both victims & for those who witness it. 
Group stresses are categorized into
two areas: 

1. Lack of group cohesiveness: cohesiveness or togetherness is especially important

to employees at lower levels of organizations. If an employee is denied the
opportunity for this cohesiveness because of the task design, because the supervisor
does things to prohibit it or because the other members of the group shut the person
out ; this could be stress producing

2. Lack of social support: Employees are greatly affected by the support of one or
more members of a cohesive group. By sharing their problems and joys with others,
they are much better off. Research indicates that the lack of social support is so
stressful that it accounts for some health care costs 

Group level dynamics organizational politics, conflicts with co-workers and

supervisors, social dislikes or ill will over time, can lead to stress and depressive
symptoms. 

➢ Individual Stressors: Individual dispositions ,such as type A personality patterns ,

personal control learned helplessness and psychological hardiness can affect stress
levels in an employee. Intra- individual level of conflict stunning from frustration goals
and roles have implications as individual stressors. 

 Type A personality, defined by Friedman and Rosenman as " an action-

emotion complex that can be observed in any person who is aggressively
involved in a chronic ,incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and
less time, and if required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or
other persons. By contrast ,Type B personalities are very laid back, are patient ,
and take a very relaxed , low-key approach to life and their job. 
 

 Personal control, if employees feel that they have little control over the work
environment and over their own job, they will experience stress.
 Learned helplessness, Seligman and his colleagues have concentrated on
peoples 
attributions for their lack of control people are most apt to experience
helplessness when they perceive the causes of the lack of control
1. To be related to something about their own personal characteristics
2. As stable and enduring
3. To be global and universal

Psychological hardiness, everyone has observed individual differences of people

faced with stressor. Some people seem to go to pieces at the slightest situations
those able to cope successfully with extreme stressor seem to have a "hardiness"
disposition. "Once an individual becomes tough and thereby experiences the
sustained energy necessary for successful coping, that person is likely to
experience a greater variety of situations as challenging rather than threatening". 

WORKPLACE FACTORS CAUSING STRESS

Intrinsic to the job include long hours, work overload, time pressure, difficult or
complex tasks, lack of breaks, lack of variety, and poor physical work conditions (for
example, space, temperature, light).  Unclear work or conflicting roles and boundaries
can cause stress, as can having responsibility for
The possibilities for job development are important buffers against current stress, with under
promotion, lack of training, and job insecurity being stressful.  
There are two other sources of stress, or buffers against stress: relationships at work, and the
organizational culture
Managers who are critical, demanding, unsupportive or bullying create stress,
whereas a positive
Other job stressors are: Money, Health and safety hazards, Work environment,
Insufficient training, Job security, Family adjustments or partner‘ carrier and
violence.
Stressors that particularly affect women include: Career blocks, Sexual harassment,
Male- dominated climate, Performance pressure, Gender stereotyping, Isolation, Lack of
role models 
The effects of stress on
psychological functioning 

People struggle with many stresses every day. Most stresses come and go
without leaving any enduring imprint. However, when stress is severe or when
many stressful demands pile up, one‘s psychological functioning may be
affected. Research on the effects of stress has focused mainly on negative
outcomes. Stress makes life challenging and interesting. Along the way,
though, stress can be harrowing, sometimes leading to impairments in
performance, to burnout, and to other problems. 

Impaired Task Performance: Stress often takes its toll on the ability to perform effectively
on a task. For instance, Roy Baumeister‘s work shows how pressure can interfere with
performance. His theory assumes that pressure to perform often makes people self-conscious
and that this elevated self-consciousness disrupts their attention. He found support for his
theory in a series of lab experiments in which he manipulated the pressure to perform on
simple perceptual-motor tasks. He found that many people tend to ―choke‖ under pressure. 

Burnout: Burnout involves physical and emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and a lowered
sense of self- efficacy that can be brought on gradually by chronic work-related stress.
Exhaustion is central to burnout. Exhaustion includes chronic fatigue, weakness, and low
energy. Cynicism is manifested in highly negative attitudes toward oneself, one‘s work, and
life in general. Reduced self-efficacy involves declining feelings of competence at work
that give way to feelings of hopelessness and helplessness. Factors in the workplace that
appear to promote burnout include work overload, struggling with interpersonal conflicts at
work, lack of control over work responsibilities and outcomes, and inadequate recognition
for one‘s work. Burnout is associated with increased absenteeism and reduced productivity
at work, as well as increased vulnerability to a variety of health problems. 

Psychological Problems and Disorders On the basis of clinical impressions,

psychologists have long suspected that chronic stress might contribute to many types of
psychological problems and mental disorders. When it comes to common psychological
problems, studies indicate that stress may contribute to poor academic performance,
insomnia and other sleep disturbances, sexual difficulties, alcohol abuse, and drug abuse.
Above and beyond these everyday problems, research reveals that stress often contributes
to the onset of full-fledged psychological disorders which include depression,
schizophrenia, and anxiety disorders. In particular, stress plays a central role in the
development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This disorder involves an enduring
psychological disturbance attributable to the experience of a major traumatic event. Stress
is only one of many factors that may contribute to psychological disorders. 

Health issues related

to stress

The effects of stress on physical health 

The idea that stress can contribute to physical ailments is not entirely new. Psychosomatic
diseases were genuine physical ailments that were thought to be caused in part by stress
and other psychological factors. The classic psychosomatic illnesses were high blood
pressure, peptic ulcers, asthma, skin disorders such as eczema and hives, and migraine and
tension headaches. Research has shown that stress can contribute to the development of a
broad range of diseases that were previously believed to be solely physiological in origin.
In fact, stress may play a part in most diseases. 

Emotional Reactions, Depression, and Heart

Disease 

Work on personality risk factors has dominated research on how psychological functioning
contributes to heart disease. Interestingly, recent studies suggest that emotional reactions
may also be critical. One line of research has supported the hypothesis that transient mental
stress and the resulting emotions that people experience can tax the heart. Based on
anecdotal evidence, cardiologists and laypersons have long voiced suspicions that strong
emotional reactions might trigger heart attacks in individuals with coronary disease. As
suspected, lab experiments have shown that brief periods of mental stress can trigger acute
symptoms of heart disease. Overall, the evidence suggests that mental stress can elicit
cardiac symptoms in about 30%–70% of patients with coronary disease. 

Stress, Other Diseases, and Immune

Functioning 

The development of questionnaires to measure life stress has allowed researchers to look
for and find correlations between stress and a variety of diseases. A partial answer for why
stress increase the risk for so many kinds of illness may lie in the immune system. The
immune response is the body‘s defensive reaction to invasion by bacteria, viral agents, or
other foreign substances. The immune response works in multiple ways to protect the body
from many forms of disease. A wealth of studies indicates that experimentally induced
stress can impair immune functioning in animals. When the immune system responds to
infection or injury it may release proinflammatory cytokines. Cytokines are proteins that
―orchestrate a number of the immune activities that play a role in killing the pathogen and
repairing damaged tissue‖. Exposure to long-term stress can sometimes foster persistent
overproduction of proinflammatory cytokines, thereby promoting chronic inflammation.
This, chronic inflammation resulting from immune system dysregulation may be another
key mechanism underlying the association between stress and wide variety of diseases. 

Work life balance

Definition: Work Life Balance
Work life balance is a method which helps employees of an organization to
balance their personal and professional lives. Work life balance encourages
employees to divide their time on the basis on priorities and maintain a balance by
devoting time to family, health, vacations etc along with making a career, business
travel etc. It is an important concept in the world of business as it helps to motivate
the employees and increases their loyalty towards the company.

According to 2010 National Health Interview Survey Occupational Health Supplement

data, 16% of U.S. workers reported difficulty balancing work and family. Imbalance was
more prevalent among workers aged 30–44 (19%) compared with other age groups. 

We simply define work-life balance as the healthy blend of an employee‘s professional and
personal responsibilities. It‘s about being able to make the two work together over the long
term, understanding that on any given day, employees may not fully ―balanced‖ one way
or the other. Rather, positive work- life balance means employees have the control and
flexibility to be successful on both fronts. 

In the 1800s, during and following the industrial revolution, industrialists and unions alike
agreed that workers needed a day off. This later became a two-day weekend‘. But in those
days, work‘ was mostly manual, and once workers left the site, they also left their work
behind. They were genuinely able to rest, away from work, without having to think about it
or worry about what might be going on in their absence. 

Times have changed dramatically. The phrase work-life balance‘ is rather more recent in
origin. It has, however, taken on a new meaning with the recent technological changes that
have made it possible for workers to stay in touch hours a day, seven days a week. mart
phones, remote working technology and the like have meant that, even on holiday, people
find it hard to switch off‘ and genuinely rest, and the complaint is often that people are
expected to be on-call‘ at all times, without being allowed to have a life outside work. 

Importance of work life balance

Working on a job for a company and making a career can be an extremely time
consuming duty for any employee. Employees are busy at their offices throughout
the day and sometimes even on weekends. This gives them very little time to
interact with their family. Because of high pressure of work, often family members
get neglected. Also, stressful jobs cause the health of employees to deteriorate.
This is where work life balance come into the picture. Work life balance concept
allows an employee to maintain a fine balance in the time he or she gives to work
as well as to personal matters. By having a good balance, people can have
a quality of work life. This helps to increase productivity at workplace as the
employee is relaxed about his personal commitments. It also allows the employee
to give quality time with family to spend vacations, leisure time, work on his/her
health etc. Hence work life balance is extremely important for employees and
increases their motivation to work for the company.
The below image depicts a work life balance scenario, where an employee has to
balance his/her life between personal (family, friends & self) and professional (job,
career) commitments.
Employees point to a variety of reasons for their poor work-life
balance, including: 

➢ Competitions

➢ Ambitions

➢Economic difficulties

➢ Increased responsibilities at work.

➢ Working longer hours.

➢ Increased responsibilities at home.

➢ Having children 
Steps to improve work life balance
There are specific guidelines to how an individual can maintain a proper work life
balance, some of which are:
1. Creating a work leisure plan: Where an individual has to schedule his tasks,
and divide time appropriately so that he has allocated appropriate time to his work
and his career development goals and at the same time allotted time for leisure and
personal development. Employees also use a compressed work week plan to build
a balance.
2. Leaving out activities that waste time and energy: Individual should
judiciously avoid wasteful activities which demand large time and energy and in
return not produce output for either the work life or the leisure life. Effective time
management can help an employee be less stressed.
3. Outsourcing work: Delegate or outsource time consuming work to other
individuals. 
4. Set enough time for relaxation: Relaxation provides better work life balance,
and tends to improve productivity on the professional or the work front along with
providing ample scope to develop the life part of the balance.
 5. Prioritizing work: Often employees do not give priority to work and end up
doing a lot of work at the last minute. Better planning can help employees save
unnecessary time delays, which can be utilized by employees for personal work

METHODS TO IMPROVE WORK LIFE BALANCE 

At workplace
• Set manageable goals each day. Being able to meet priorities helps us feel a sense
of accomplishment and control. The latest research shows that the more control we have
over our work, the less stressed we get. o be realistic about workloads and deadlines. Make
a ―to do‖ list, and take care of important tasks first and eliminate unessential ones. 
• Be efficient with your time at work - When we procrastinate, the task often grows
in our minds until it seems insurmountable. So when you face a big project at work or
home, start by dividing it into smaller tasks. Complete the first one before moving on to the
next. Give yourself small rewards and breaks upon each completion. If you feel
overwhelmed by routines that seem unnecessary, tell your boss. The less time you spend
doing busy work or procrastinating, the more time you can spend productively, or with
friends or family. 
• Flexibility schedules - Flex time and telecommuting are quickly becoming
established as necessities in today‘s business world, and many companies are drafting
work/life policies. If you ask, they might allow you to work flexible hours or from home a
day a week. Research shows that employees who work flexible schedules are more
productive and loyal to their employers. 

• Take breaks and relax - Taking a break at work isn‘t only acceptable, it‘s often
encouraged by many employers. Small breaks at work—or on any project—will help clear
your head, and improve your ability to deal with stress and make good decisions when you
jump back into the grind. Listening to your favorite music at work to foster concentration,
reduce stress and anxiety, and stimulate creativity. Studies dating back more than 30 years
show the benefits of music in everyday life, including lowered blood pressure. 
• Communicate effectively. Be honest with colleagues or your boss when you feel
you‘re in a bind. Chances are, you‘re not alone. But don‘t just complain—suggest practical
alternatives. Looking at a situation from someone else‘s viewpoint can also reduce your
stress. In a tense situation, either rethink your strategy or stand your ground, calmly and
rationally. Make allowances for other opinions, and compromise. Retreat before you lose
control, and allow time for all involved to cool off. You‘ll be better equipped to handle the
problem constructively later. 
 At Home:

• Unplug. The same technology that makes it so easy for workers to do their jobs
flexibly can also burn us out if we use them 24/7. By all means, make yourself available—
especially if you‘ve earned the right to ―flex‖ your hours—but recognize the need for
personal time, too. 
• Divide and conquer. Make sure responsibilities at home are evenly distributed
and clearly outlined to avoid confusion and problems later. 
• Don't over commit. Do you feel stressed when you just glance at your
calendar? If you‘re overscheduled with activities, learn to say,‖ NO.‖ 
• Get support. Chatting with friends and family can be important to your success at
home or at work and can even improve your health. People with stronger support systems
have more aggressive immune responses to illnesses than those who lack such support. 
• Stay active. Aside from its well-known physical benefits, regular exercise reduces
stress, depression and anxiety, and enables people to better cope with adversity, according
to researchers. It‘ll also boost your immune system. Make time in your schedule for the
gym or to take a walk during lunch and have some fun! 
• Treat your body right. Being in good shape physically increases your tolerance to
stress and reduces sick days. Eat right, exercise and get adequate rest. Don‘t rely on drugs,
alcohol or cigarettes to cope with stress; they‘ll only lead to more problems. 
• Get help if you need it. Don‘t let stress stand in the way of your health and
happiness. If you are persistently overwhelmed, it may be time to seek help from a mental
health professional. Asking for help is not a sign of weakness—taking care of yourself is a
sign of strength. 

BENEFITS OF WORK
LIFEBALANCE 

To the organization:

 Less absenteeism, turnover and tardiness

 Measured increased in productivity,

accountability and commitment
  Better teamwork and coomunication

 Improved morale

 Less negative organizational stress.

 Less absenteeism, turnover and tardiness

To Individual :

 More value and balance in daily life

 increased productivity.

 Reduced stress

 Improved on-the-job and off-the-job relationship

 Better understanding of work life balance

Benefits of work life balance

There are several advantage of work life balance.
1. Work life balance increases the motivation of employees and helps them
perform better at job
2. It helps people to relieve their stress as they can spend leisure time with their
near and dear ones
3. Companies can maximise productivity from an employee who is rejuvenated
and refreshed as compared to a over worked employee
4. Healthy lifestyles can be maintained by having a work life balance. This
includes a good diet, regular exercises etc
5. Employees who are highly motivated can help the business grow as they are
more attached to their job and career.