MODULE 1-INTRODUCING birth determines personality traits and affects

PSYCHOLOGY behavior.  
So why are these pseudo-psychologies accepted
by people?  One reason is uncritical acceptance
1.1. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
which is the tendency to believe claims because
they seem to be true or it would be nice if they
What is Psychology?
were true.  Another reason is confirmation bias
which is the tendency to remember or notice
How do we define psychology?  To start with the
things that confirm our expectations and forget
term comes from two Greek roots: psyche
the rest.  
meaning mind and logos meaning study or
knowledge.  Psychology is the scientific study of
Pseudopsychologies also take advantage of the
overt behavior and mental processes.  Overt
Barnum effect.  This is the tendency to consider
behavior is any directly observable action or
personal descriptions as accurate if they are
response.  This could be eating, sleeping, talking,
stated in general terms.  Valid psychological
sneezing, or even skydiving.  Covert behaviors
principles are based on scientific theory and
are unobservable behaviors or mental events
evidence.
like thinking, dreaming, and reasoning.  
The field of psychology is ever-changing and
Scientific Method
developing.  It can help us to better understand
ourselves and others.  It is both a science and a
The scientific method is a form of critical
profession.  Some psychologists research to
thinking based on careful collection of evidence,
discover new knowledge while others apply
accurate description and measurement, precise
psychology to solve problems.  Psychology can
definition, controlled observations, and
be used in the fields of mental health, business,
repeatable results.   Psychological research
education, sports, law, medicine, and even in the
begins by defining a problem and proposing a
design of machines.  Other psychologists are
hypothesis.  A hypothesis is a predicted outcome
teachers who like to share their knowledge with
of an experiment or an educated guess about the
students.  
relationship between variables.  
Regardless of where they work, all psychologists
Next researchers gather the evidence to test the
rely on critical thinking and information from
hypothesis.  The results of the studies are made
scientific observation and research.   Scientific
public so others have the chance to evaluate,
observation is an empirical investigation
learn, and suggest new hypotheses that lead to
structured to answer questions about the world
further research.  
in a systematic and inter-subjective fashion
meaning more than one observer can confirm
Psychological research must be done ethically to
them.  Psychologists study behavior by collecting
protect the rights, dignity, and welfare of
data to draw valid conclusions.
participants.
Pseudopsychologies
Basic Ethical Guidelines for Research in
Psychology
Pseudopsychologies are any unfounded systems
that resemble psychology.  They can be
1. Do no harm
described as a type of superstition or unfounded
2. Describe all risks to potential participants
belief held without evidence or in the face of
3. Make sure participation is voluntary
false evidence.  They change little over time
4. Minimize any patient discomfort
because followers seek evidence that appears to
5. Maintain confidentiality
confirm their beliefs and avoid evidence that
6. Do not invade privacy unnecessarily
contradicts their beliefs.
7. Only use deception when absolutely
necessary
One pseudo-psychology was phrenology.  This
8. Debrief by removing any misconceptions
idea was popularized by Granz Gall, a German
caused by deception
anatomy teacher.  Phrenology claimed the shape
9. Provide participants with results &
of the skull revealed personality traits.  Palmistry
interpretations
is another false idea that lines on the hand reveal
10. Treat participants with dignity & respect
personality traits as well as predict the future.  
*HISTORY IN NOTEBOOK*
Astrology is the most popular pseudo-
psychology.  Astrology is the belief that the
positions of stars and planets at the time of one’s

1.2. PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES &
DISCIPLINES
Theories in Psychology
1. Structuralism:  Attempt to understand the
structure or characteristics of the mind
2. Functionalism:  Focused on how mental
activities helped an organism fit into its
environment, more interested in the
operation of the whole mind rather than its
individual parts
3. Psychodynamic Theory:  Focuses on the
role of a person’s unconscious as well as
early childhood experiences  hypothesis regarding the causes of behavior.  In
4. Behaviorism:  Emphasizes the study of
overt, observable behavior
5. Gestalt:  School of psychology that
emphasizes the study of thinking, learning,
and perception in whole units
6. Humanism:  An approach to psychology that
focuses on human experience, problems,
potentials, and ideals
Contemporary Perspectives
There are three contemporary perspectives in
psychology:  Biological, Psychological, and
Sociocultural.  The biological perspective is the
attempt to explain behavior in terms of
underlying biological principles.  There are two
views within this perspective: the
biopsychological view and the evolutionary
view.  The biopsychological view believes human
and animal behavior is the result of internal
physical, chemical, and biological processes.  On
the other hand, the evolutionary view believes
human and animal behavior is the result of the
process of evolution.
The psychological perspective is the traditional
view that behavior is shaped by psychological
processes occurring at the individual level.  This
perspective includes the following views:
Behaviorist view:  behavior is shaped and
controlled by one’s environment
Cognitive view: Human behavior can be
understood in terms of the mental processing of
information
Psychodynamic view:  Behaviors is directed by
forces within one’s personality which are often
hidden or unconscious
Humanistic view: behavior is guided by one’s
self-image, subjective perceptions of the world,
and needs for personal growth
The sociocultural perspective focuses on the
importance of social and cultural contexts in
influencing the behavior of individuals.  The
sociocultural view believes behavior is
influenced by one’s social and cultural context.
*DISCIPLINES IN NOTEBOOK*
1.3. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Introduction
The most used psychological research tool is the
experiment.  An experiment is the formal trial
that is done to confirm or disconfirm a
order to do an experiment you need to do the
following:
 Directly vary a condition you think may affect
behavior
 Create two or work groups of subjects that are
alike in all ways except the condition you are
varying
 Record if that condition has any effect on
behavior
A variable is a condition that can change and that
may affect the outcome of the experiment. 
Identifying cause and effect in experiments
involves three types of variables:
1. independent variable - condition being altered or
varied, suspected causes for differences in
behavior
2. dependent variable - measure the result of the
experiment, effects the independent variables
have on behavior
3. extraneous variable - condition the researcher
wants to prevent from affecting the outcome of
the experiment
Once the variables are identified the participants
are divided into two groups the experimental
group and the control group.  The experimental
group is made up of participants exposed to the
independent variable.  The control group is
exposed to all other variables except for the
independent variable.  Random assignment
means that a participant has an equal chance of
being in either the experimental or the control
group.
Double-Blind Study
 Placebo – known as a fake treatment that is
known to have no medical effect.
- It may have psychological effects
- These effects are known as Placebo
Effect
- By believing and expecting something to
work, it will work.
- E.g. If you believe a pill will make you
feel better, you WILL feel better even if
the pill is fake.
 Placebos can be used for a control group.
- The control group receives the placebo
as a treatment; in other words, the
control group receives a fake treatment.
 Control Group – gives one something to
compare the results with
 Double-Blind Experiment – the experimenter
and the subjects do not know which of the
groups being studied is the experimental
group and which is the control group.
- Good for eliminating biased research
results.
Non-Experimental Research Methods
 Naturalistic Observation – researchers watch
and record how people behave in everyday
real-life situations.
 Difficulties – problems encountered in doing
observational research.
 Limitations – built into the method.
 Observer Bias – researcher’s view of the
behavior using more than one observer could
mitigate but not solve this limitation.
 Self-Report Methods
- Questionnaire Design – short, easily
understood, standardized
 Strengths – large numbers, quick &
cheap, measurement, reliability
 Weaknesses – lack of depth
- Unstructured/Semi-structured Interview
– face to face
 Strengths – more depth, more
flexibility, more validity
- Case Studies – in-depth investigation of a
single person, small group, or an event.
 It gives psychologists the
opportunity to study things that
couldn’t be engineered in
laboratories.
- Correlations – types of relationships
 It measures the extent to which two
or more variables are related.
 Strengths – gives relationship
between factors and strength of
relationship.
 Correlational analysis usually starts
with a hypothesis.
 Correlation Coefficient – calculations that
measure the strength of a relationship; the
closer the number is to positive 1 or negative
1, the stronger the correlation is.
Correlational Research
 In 2003, Italian researchers published a
scientific article claiming that eating pizza
can reduce the risk of certain cancers. That’s
right, one of the most consumed foods on
Super Bowl Sunday – greasy, cheesy, salty
pizza – is linked to fighting cancer.
 Now you may be thinking “can eating pizza
really cut the risk of cancer?” “Is there a
causal relationship between your favorite
meat lover deep dish and healthy living?”
Well, not really.
 Correlation does not imply causation. That is
to say, if A (pizza) is related to B (fighting
cancer), that doesn’t necessarily mean A
caused B. This is a common error in our
thinking. Looking deeper into the research
findings, there is much more than meets the
eye.
 Why does correlation not imply causation? It
is common to think that when two things
relate to one another or appear linked, like
money and happiness, violent video games
and aggressive behavior, and eating breakfast
and success in school, that one caused the
other. But there are several reasons to be
cautious. For instance, maybe there is a third
variable. Often times, two variables appear to
be linked to each other but in actuality there
is another unknown or “third” variable that is
the real source of the link. This is called the
Third Variable Problem.
 It is also very common for people to see
relationships between variables when none
exist, like eating candy and hyperactivity.
This is called an Illusory Correlation.
 Let’s take a look at a common example
ubiquitous in sports: superstitions. Athletes
are renowned for being superstitious. They
often develop unusual rituals to keep hitting
streaks or alive or to end terrible slumps, for
example. From a psychological perspective,
athletes have convinced themselves that a
relationship exists between performing
specific rituals and performing well on the
field. Unfortunately, this relationship is
merely a fallacy. So, why do psychologists
conduct correlational research?
 Foremost, psychologists are interested in the
relationship between two variables.
Specifically, how well one variable predicts
the presence or absence of another variable.
 Figuring out how closely two variables relate
to or predict one another is measured using a
statistical measure called correlation
coefficient (r). This index measures the
strength of the correlation. Represented by
Pearson’s r, the value of a correlation can
range from +1.0 to -1.0 – each being a perfect
correlation; an r of 0 means no relationship
exists between two variables. A correlation of
.87 for example, would be considered very
strong, while a -.27 would be considered
weak.
 It is important to note that positive doesn’t
mean “good” and negative doesn’t mean
“bad”, but rather positive and negative signify
the direction of the correlation. Specifically, a
 positive correlation implies that one variable
predicts the presence of another variable. In
other words, as the value of one variable
increases, the value of other variable
increases as well.
 Conversely, a negative correlation implies
that one variable predicts the absence of
another variable. In other words, as the value
of one variable increases, the value of other
variable decreases.
MODULE 2- THE BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR
2.1. NERVOUS SYSTEM
*INTRODUCTION IN NOTEBOOK*
*NEURON STRUCTURE ON NOTEBOOK*
NEURON COMMUNICATION
 How does the pain you experience when you
burn your hand result so quickly in an action
by your muscles? Many animals respond to
environmental stimuli using specialized cells
called neurons.
 A stimulus is detected is detected by sensory
receptors and the body responds to motor
effectors. These cells, working together allow
you to respond very quickly to threats. When
you touch something hot, heat receptors of a
sensory neuron detect the stimuli and send
the information of heat to an interneuron in
your central nervous system. From there, a
motor neuron sends a response from your
central nervous system to the skeletal
muscles in your arm, causing them to
contract and out your hand away. The
fundamental process of neural transmission
that underlies this action occurs in all
neurons of the body.
 Neurons transmit this information through
changes in the electrical potential of the
membrane by the movement of ions across
the membrane. An electrochemical gradient
governs the movement of these ions,
resulting in an electrical impulse. The resting
membrane potential in a neuron, when the
cell is not firing an impulse, is established by
an unequal distribution of sodium ions
outside of the cell and potassium ions inside
the cell, making the outside of the cell more
positively charged compared to the inside.
The electrochemical gradient is established
and maintained by an enzyme called sodium-
potassium ATPase. When a neuron is
stimulated, sodium ion channels open and
sodium ions flow into the cell.
 This leads to a change in the electrical
potential across the membrane called
depolarization. The depolarizing electrical
potential travels down the dendrites and
over the cell body. Multiple electrical
potentials will combine at the axon hillock in
a process called summation. If the
depolarization is large enough, an action
potential is triggered. Action potentials are
all or none electrical impulses that maintain
their amplitude and strength down the length
of the axon. The action potential travels down
the axon when the depolarization of an area
of membrane causes adjacent voltage-gated
sodium ion channels to open.
 2:24
 Some neurons have axons that are coated in
myelin which helps the nerve impulses move
faster.  So instead of passing down the entire
length of the axon, the action potential leaps
from gap to gaps in a process called saltatory
conduction.  If we did not have the added
speed of saltatory action potentials it would
be nearly impossible to break quickly enough
to avoid an auto accident.
Neurotransmitters
 How does information move from one
neuron to another?  This communication is
chemical.  The microscopic space between
the neurons is called the synapse.  When the
action potential reaches the end of the axon
terminals, neurotransmitters are released in
the synaptic gap.  The neurotransmitters are
chemicals that alter activity in neurons. 
These chemicals attach to the receptor sites
on the cell member.  Neurotransmitters do
not always trigger action potential in the next
neuron.  Some will move the next neuron
closer to firing while others will make it less
likely to fire.
 There are more than 100 neurotransmitters
in the brain.
Neural Networks
 Let’s look at the simplest neural network
called a reflex arc.  A reflex arc occurs when a
stimulus provokes an automatic response. 
This reflex arc is set in motion by a stimulus
 to the skin or other parts of the body, model of the brain.  MRI scans produce a
stepping on a small rock for example.  When more detailed image than a CT scan.
this happens, the sensory neuron in the
spinal cord synapses with a connector Mapping Brain Function
neuron, the connector neuron activates a  Localization of function is the research
motor neuron that activates the effector cells strategy of linking specific structures in the
causing the muscle cells to contract and your brain with specific psychological and
foot to withdraw.  These reflexes free our behavioral functions.
brains up to deal with more important  How do researchers identify what different
information.   parts of the brain do? One way is through
 Neural networks perform much more electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB). Part
complex calculations.   At any one time, a of the brain can be turned on by stimulating
single neuron could be receiving several it with an electrical current delivered
messages.  So when does it fire an impulse?  If through an electrode. This can be done
there are enough exciting messages arriving during brain surgery so that the patient can
close together the neuron will reach its describe the effect of the stimulation.
threshold and fire but if it receives too many  You may be wondering how brain surgery
inhibiting messages it will be pushed away can be done while the patient is awake. Well,
from its trigger point.  Exciting and inhibiting the brain has no pain receptors so surgery
messages are combined before a neuron fires can be done with just local painkillers for the
its all or nothing action potential. scalp and skull.
 Ablation is the surgical removal of parts of
Neuroplasticity & Neurogenesis the brain. When removing parts of the brain
 Neuroplasticity refers to how the brain causes changes in behavior or sensory
changes in response to experiences.  Synaptic capacity researchers are able to learn more
connections may grow stronger and new about the missing part of the brain.
ones may form.  Every new experience you  Deep lesioning is when an electrode is placed
have leads to changes in your brain.  into a target area inside of the brain and a
Although adult brains are less neuroplastic strong electrical current is used to destroy
they can still be changed.   the brain tissue. Again, researchers can look
 Even though we lose brain cells daily, the for changes in behavior to learn about the
brain is also growing new cells to replace functions of the affected area.
them through a process called neurogenesis.   There are also techniques that allow us to see
Each day new cells originate deep in the activities of the brain without doing damage
brain and move to the surface to link up with to the brain. These include EEG, PET scan,
other neurons and become part of the brain’s and fMRI.
circuitry.  Most likely these cells are involved  Electroencephalography (EEG) measures the
in learning, memory, and our ability to adapt waves of electrical activities produced near
to changing circumstances.  the surface of the brain. During an EEG, small
electrodes are placed on a person’s scalp. The
Mapping Brain Structure electrical impulses from the brain are
 Biopsychology is the study of how biological detected and sent to the EEG. The EEG
processes relate to behavior.  amplifies the brain waves and records them
Biopsychologists try to learn what parts of on a moving piece of paper. Different brain
the brain control what functions.  In order to wave patterns can identify the presence of
do this, they use brain mapping. tumors, epilepsy as well as other diseases.
 The two primary methods for mapping live The EEG can also show changes in brain
brain structures in CT scan and MRI scan.  A activity during sleep, day-dreaming, or
CT scan or computed tomographic scan is a hypnosis.
specialized x-ray of the brain.  The x-rays are  Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
taken from several different angles and form provides more detailed images of brain
into an image of the brain.  The CT scan can activity near and below the surface of the
reveal brain structure as well as the location brain. A PET scan detects positrons emitted
of strokes, injuries, tumors, and other brain by weakly radioactive glucose as it is
disorders.   consumed by the brain. Since the brain runs
 MRI or magnetic resonance imaging uses a on glucose, a PET scan will show which areas
strong magnetic field to produce an image of are using more energy. Higher energy usage
the interior of the body.  A person is placed is related to higher activity. By using positron
inside a magnetic field during an MRI.  The detectors around the head and sending data
computer processes a three dimensional to a computer it will create a moving, colored
picture of changes in brain activity.
 A functional MRI uses MRI technology to
make brain activity visible. fMRI provides
images of activity throughout the brain like
the PET scan.
2.2. CEREBRAL CORTEX
Introduction
 The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of
the brain and is made up of grey matter that
is folded and wrinkled.  In humans, this is the
largest brain structure.  In animals, this part
of the brain is smooth and small.  The fact
that humans are more intelligent than
animals is related to the size of the cerebral
cortex.
 The cortex has two sides known as cerebral
hemispheres which are connected by the
corpus callosum, a thick band of axon fibers.  visual information.
The left side of the brain primarily controls
the right side of the body and the left side of
the brain primarily controls the right side of
the body.  Spatial neglect can be a problem
caused by damage to one hemisphere. 
Patients with spatial neglect may pay no
attention to one side of visual space.  
 95% of people use their left brain for
language including speaking, writing, and
understanding.  The left side of the brain is
also better at math, judging time and rhythm,
and coordinating the order of complete
movements.  The right hemisphere on the
other hand can only produce the simplest
language and numbers.  The right brain is
good at perceptual skills like recognizing
patterns, putting together a puzzle, or
drawing a picture.  It is also helpful in
expressing emotions and identifying the
emotions of other people.    Let’s start with the hindbrain which is
 In general terms, the left hemisphere is
involved with analysis or breaking down
information into parts and processing the
information in sequential order.  The right
hemisphere processes information all at once
or holistically and simultaneously.  breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate.
Phineas Gage
 Watch later
Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
 There are four lobes of the cerebral cortex.
The frontal lobe is associated with higher
mental abilities, movement, and sense of self.
The frontal lobe contains the motor cortex
which is involved in planning and
coordinating movement. The prefrontal
cortex is responsible for higher-level
cognitive functioning. Broca’s area is
essential for language production.
 The parietal lobe is located behind the frontal
lobe and is responsible for processing
information from the body’s senses. The
parietal lobe contains the somatosensory
cortex and is used to process sensory
information across the body including touch,
temperature, and pain.
 The temporal lobe is located on the side of
the head and is associated with hearing,
memory, emotion, and some aspects of
language. The auditory cortex is responsible
for processing auditory information. The
Wernicke’s area is also located in the
temporal lobe and used for speech
comprehension.
 The occipital lobe is located at the back of the
brain and contains the primary visual cortex.
It is responsible for interpreting incoming
Subcortex
 The subcortex of the brain is immediately
below the cerebral hemispheres. It can be
divided into the brainstem or hindbrain, the
midbrain, and the forebrain.
located at the back of the head and looks like
an extension of the spinal cord. It consists of
the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. The
medulla controls the automatic processes of
the autonomic nervous system including
The pons connects the brain and the spinal
cord and is responsible for regulating brain
activity during sleep. The cerebellum
primarily regulates posture, muscle tone, and
muscular coordination. It also stores
memories related to habits.
 The midbrain is the link between the
forebrain and the brainstem.
 The forebrain is made up of the thalamus and
the hypothalamus. The thalamus relays
sensory information to the cerebral cortex.
The hypothalamus is a small area of the brain
that regulates emotional behaviors and
motives. It can be viewed as the master
control for emotion. It is a crossroads that
connect many areas of the brain.
 The limbic system is a system in the
forebrain that is closely linked to emotional
responses. The amygdala is part of the limbic
system and is associated with fear responses.
The hippocampus is another part of the
limbic system and is associated with the
storing of memories.
Endocrine System
 The endocrine system is made up of glands
that secrete chemicals directly into the
bloodstream or lymph system. The chemicals
are called hormones and are carried
throughout the body.
MODULE 3- HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
3.1. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Nature vs. Nurture
 Developmental psychology is the study of
progressive changes in behavior and abilities,
involving every stage of life from conception
to death. Heredity or nature and our
environment or nurture also affect us
through our lives. Both nature and nurture
play an important role in human
development.
 Heredity or nature is the genetic
transmission of physical and psychological
characteristics from parents to children.
Every human cell contains DNA which is a
long ladder-like change of pairs of chemical
molecules. DNA in humans is organized into
46 chromosomes. Chromosomes hold the
coded instruction of heredity. Sperm cells
and ova each contain 23 chromosomes thus
each child received 23 chromosomes from
each parent. This becomes the child’s genetic
heritage.
 Genes are small segments of DNA that affect a
particular process or personal characteristic.
Genes can be dominant or recessive.
Dominant genes will appear every time the
gene is present. Recessive genes have to be
paired with a second recessive gene before
its effect is expressed. Most of our
characteristics are polygenic meaning they
are controlled by many genes working in
combination. Genes also have the ability to
switch on and off at certain ages or
developmental stages. Genetic instructions
influence body size, shape, height,
intelligence, personality traits, and many
other details.
Human Growth Sequence
Newborns
 Newborn babies have physical and mental
capacities that can be surprising. Newborns
have basic survival skills they are born with.
 One example is the grasping reflex. If you
press an object in a baby’s palm they will
grasp it with surprising strength.
 Another example is the rooting reflex, or the
ability to turn head and nurse.
 The sucking reflex helps the baby obtain
needed food.
 The Moro reflex is the baby’s ability to make
a hugging motion if they are startled or their
position changes abruptly.
 A baby’s motor development is orderly.
Muscular control spreads from head to toe or
cephalocaudal and from the center of the
body to the extremities or proximodistal.
 Newborns can see, hear, smell, taste, and
respond to pain and touch. Although their
senses are less acute they are very
 responsive. Newborn vision is not as sharp as
that of adults.
 They can see most things clearly from about a
foot away. Hours after birth babies prefer
seeing their mother’s face rather than that of
a stranger.
 Between 2 and 5 days, old babies will pay
more attention to a person looking directly at
them than one looking away. Another
interesting fact about infant vision is that
three-day-old babies prefer complex patterns
over simple ones.
 By one year of age, a baby can see as well as
their parents.
 When will a child be able to walk, talk, or be
potty trained? This is based on the child’s
readiness or the condition that exists when
maturation has advanced enough to allow the
rapid acquisition of a particular skill. Parents
are asking for failure when they attempt to
force a child to learn skills too early or too
late.
Nurture
 Our environment has a strong influence on
our development as well. Nurture is the sum
of all external conditions that affect a person.
Newborns have fewer dendrites and synapse
than the adult brain but the newborn brain is
highly plastic or capable of being altered by
experience.
 Environmental factors start influencing
development before birth. Congenital
problems are problems or defects that
originate during prenatal development in the
womb. On the other hand, genetic disorders
are problems that are curated by defects in
the genes or by inherited characteristics.
Anything that is capable of disturbing normal
development in the womb is called a
teratogen. Teratogens can include radiation,
lead, pesticides, and substances such as drugs
and alcohol.
 During development, a period of increased
sensitivity to environmental influence is
called a sensitive period. This is also a time
when certain events must take place in order
for normal development to occur. Some
environments can be described as deprived
or enriched. Deprivation is the lack of
normal nutrition, stimulation, comfort, or
love and enrichment is when an environment
is deliberately made more stimulating, loved,
etc. When a child suffers from severe
deprivation they can become intellectually
disabled and emotionally damaged.
Temperament
 Growing infants influence their parents’
behavior and at the same time are changed
by it. This is called reciprocal influences.
Newborn babies differ in temperament or the
physical core of personality.
 Temperament can include sensitivity,
irritability, distractibility and typical mood.
Three temperament types have been
identified: easy, difficult, and slow to warm
up.
 Easily children are relaxed and agreeable,
difficult children are moody, intense, and
easily angered, and slow to warm up children
are restrained, shy, and unexpressive. It is
important to remember that inherited
temperaments are dynamically modified by a
child’s experiences.
3.2. ATTACHMENT & PARENTING
Social Development
 A baby’s affection needs or needs for love and
affection are as important as their needs for
food, water, and physical care. In order to
meet their affectional needs, infants begin to
form emotional attachments or close
emotional bonds with their primary
caregivers. As babies form their emotional
bonds with an adult, they start to develop
self-awareness and become aware of others.
This early social development lays a
foundation for subsequent relationships with
others.
 As babies mature they feel more attached to
and more capable of bonding with their
mothers. For the first few months, babies
respond almost equally to everyone. At 2 to
3 months of age, most babies will prefer their
mothers to strangers. At around seven
months babies generally become truly
attached to their mothers. After that, they
begin to form attachments with other people.
Around 8 to 12 months children begin to
display separation anxiety which is crying or
signs of fear when they are left alone or with
a stranger. Mild separation anxiety is normal
whereas more intense separation anxiety can
reveal a problem.
Harlow’s Monkeys
 Infants of many species develop a lasting and
intense bond with their mother. How and
why this bond develops was the subject of a
great deal of speculation, but little
experimentation prior to the 1950s.
 Before this time most theorists believed that
infants become attached to their mothers via
classical conditioning. Mom feeds the infant,
reducing their hunger, so the baby begins to
associate mom with the reduction of hunger
and pain, and thus begins to love her.
 Harry Harlow was the first to point out that
the attachment bond doesn’t get extinguished
when mom stops feeding the baby.
 Rather, it tends to persist throughout the
lifespan. He also noted that baby monkeys
that had been separated from their mothers
in an earlier study tended to cling to the soft
cloth pad in their cage.
 Noting the similarity to human infants
cuddling stuffed animals, Harlow set out on
an experiment to determine if the attachment
of infants is primarily driven by an
association to food or by the contact comfort
provider by the mother.
 As we learned in that last chapter, research
ethics were not of particular concern to many
researchers during this time. So, Harlow
chose monkeys as his research subjects, not
because he was concerned about the
potentially disastrous psychological
consequences of messing with a human
baby’s relationship with its mother - but
rather, because human infants possesses
“inadequate motor capabilities.”
 Harlow’s experiment involved the
construction of two surrogate mothers. One
mother was made of wire mesh, the other
was constructed of soft foam covered by
terry cloth. The mothers were then placed in
the cages of newborn baby rhesus monkeys.
Half the monkeys were fed via the wire
mother while the other half were fed via the
cloth mother.
 Harlow then recorded how much time the
babies spent with each mother. All the babies,
regardless of who fed them, spent the vast
majority of their time with the soft and
cuddly mom. Additionally, when the monkeys
were startled, they would run and clutch the
soft mother about 80% of the time while only
retreating to the wire mother about 5% of
the time.
 This evidence was taken to suggest that it is
indeed the contact comfort provided by
mothers that results in the infant’s
attachment, not the feeding. Later research
with humans has noted the importance of
emotional responsiveness and sensitive and
consistent care. However, the breakthrough
provided by Harlow remains one of the most
important findings in developmental
psychology.
Attachment Quality
 There are different types of attachment
quality.
 Secure attachment: a stable and positive
emotional bond.
 Insecure-avoidant attachment: an anxious
emotional bond marked by a tendency to
avoid reunion with a parent or caregiver.
 Insecure-ambivalent attachment: an anxious
emotional bond marked by both a desire to
be with a parent or caregiver and some
resistance to being reunited.
 Infants who are securely attached in infancy
show resilience, curiosity, problem-solving
ability, and social skills in preschool.
Attachment failures can be quite damaging.
For some children, a lack of affectionate care
in infancy can have a lasting emotional
impact well into adulthood.
Parenting Styles
 Diana Baumrind has studied the effects of
three major parenting styles or identifiable
patterns of parental caretaking and
interaction with children.
 Authoritarian parents have rigid rules and
demand strict obedience to authority figures.
These types of parents tend to discipline
their children through power assertion.
 Power assertion is physical punishment or a
show of force such as taking things away.
Authoritarian parents may also withdraw
love and affection by refusing to speak to the
child or rejecting the child. Children raised
with this type of parenting are usually
obedient and self-controlled.
 However, they can be withdrawn and depend
on adults for approval. They can also develop
low self-esteem.
 Overly permissive parents allow a lot of
freedom and give little guidance. They do not
hold children accountable for their actions.
Permissive parents tend to have dependent,
immature children who frequently
misbehave.
 Authoritative parenting supply firm and
consistent guidance combined with love and
affection. These parents control their
children’s behavior through management
techniques that combine praise, recognition,
approval, rules, and reasoning to enforce
child discipline. This parenting style
generally produces children whom are
resilient and have strengths needed to thrive
in difficult circumstances.
Language Development
 A baby's initial form of language or
communication is crying. At about 6 to 8
weeks of age, babies start cooing which is the
repetition of vowel sounds such as “oo” and
“ah”. By 7 months of age, they are in the
babbling stage. In the babbling stage,
consonants b, d, m, and g are combined with
the vowel sounds to produce meaningless
language. Around the age of one, children
 start to use real words and soon make the
first connection between words and objects
and children can address their parents as
“mama” or “dada”. By 18 months to two
years, the vocabulary may include one
hundred or more words. They start with the
single-word stage and soon after are
arranging words into simple two-word
sentences called telegraphic speech.
 Two-year-olds understand some of the
commands from their parents but are not
always willing to carry them out. During this
time, children begin to have more temper
tantrums. Usually, two-year-olds will do
things parents don’t want them to do. After
the age of two, the child’s comprehension will
grow at a phenomenal rate.
 Parents often communicate with their infants
using parentese. Parentese is a pattern of
speech used when talking to infants that is
higher-pitched, short, uses simple sentences,
repetition, and slower speech. Parentese can
help parents get babies’ attention,
communicate with them, and teach them
language.
 Watch later
3.3. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
 Piaget believed the intellect grows through
assimilation and accommodations.
Assimilation refers to using existing mental
patterns in new situations. Accommodation
is when existing ideas are modified to fit new
requirements.
 Piaget's theory argues that we have to
conquer 4 stages of cognitive development:
- Sensori-Motor Stage  we do, and still don't understand that they
- Pre-Operational Stage  see it differently.
- Concrete Operational Stage
- Formal Operational Stage.  11) - We finally discover the logic and we
 Only once we have gone through all the
stages, at what age can vary, we are able to
reach full human intelligence.       example of this is inductive reasoning: which
 The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages 0-2) - In the
sensorimotor stage, we develop through
experiences and movement our five senses:
our brain wants to see, hear, smell, taste, and
touch as much as possible.
 First, we start with simple reflexes and soon
after we develop our first habits. From four
months old, we become aware of things
beyond our own body and then as we get
older, we learn to do things intentionally.
 A key milestone in the development of
working memory, or in Piaget terms, our
realization of object permanence. Before that,
our mom can show and then hide a teddy,
and we would think it’s gone. After, we
understand that objects continue to exist,
even when we can't see them.   
 We start becoming curious about everything,
we want to smell flowers, taste food, listen to
sounds, and talk to strangers. To explore
more, we move. We learn to sit crawl, stand,
walk and even run. This increased physical
mobility consequently leads to increased
cognitive development.
 But we remain egocentric, meaning we can
perceive the world only from our own point
of view.   
 The Preoperational Stage (Ages 2-7) - Our
thinking is mainly categorized through
Symbolic Functions and Intuitive Thoughts.
We have lots of fantasies and believe objects
are alive (about ANIMISM ).
 As we are not able to apply specific cognitive
operations, Piaget called this stage pre-
operational. We learn to speak and
understand that words, images, and gestures
are symbols for something else.
 When we draw our family, we are not
concerned about drawing each person to
scale, but rather with their symbolic
meanings. We love to play pretend, which
allows us to experience something new and
learn a lot.      
 At around age four, most of us become very
curious and ask many questions - we want to
know everything.
 We can call it the birth of primitive reasoning.
Piaget called it the ‘intuitive’ age because
while we realize that we have a vast amount
of knowledge, we have no idea how we
acquired it.
 Our thinking in this stage is still pretty
egocentric. We think others see the world as
 
 The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7-
develop concrete cognitive operations, such
as sorting objects in a certain order. One
means that if we see someone eating a
cookie, we can draw a conclusion and then
make a generalization.
 And we now get the concept of ‘conservation’.
We understand that if we pour orange juice
from a normal glass to a taller one, the
amount stays the same. Our younger sister
will pick the taller glass, thinking she gets
more. By the same logic, we only now can
understand that if 3+5 = 8, then 8-3 must
equal 5.      
 Our brain learns to rearrange our thoughts,
to classify and built concrete operational
mental structures.
 For example, we now know that we can and got exactly the same candy at each house.
reverse action by doing the opposite.      Yet, by the time the evening was over, Reggie
Excited by our new mental abilities, we apply was very upset. Because his bag was bigger
them in conversations, activities, when we than his brother's, it didn't seem to him that
learn to write and in school. he had as much candy.  Answer:
 As a result, we get to know ourselves better. Preoperational
We begin to understand that our thoughts 3. Andrea and her younger sister were playing
and feelings are unique and not necessarily with the coins their grandmother had given
those of others. That means that we learn to each of them during a recent visit. While they
put ourselves in someone else's shoes.     were playing, Andrea proposed a trade. She
 The Formal Operational Stage (Age 12+) - would give her little sister a big coin (a
Once we become teenagers, we become nickel) in exchange for a little coin (a dime).
formally operational. We now have the ability Her sister agreed just as Andrea thought she
to “think more rationally about abstract would. She was pretty sure that her sister
concepts and hypothetical events”. didn't understand that a dime was worth
 Our advanced cognitive abilities allow us to more than a nickel.  Answer: Concrete
understand abstract concepts such as success Operational
and failure, love and hate. 4. While watching television with his dad, Bryce
 We form a deeper understanding of our own kept trying to grab the remote control.
identity and morality. We now also think that Finally, his dad hid the remote control behind
we understand why people behave the way his back. That didn't seem to bother Bryce a
they behave and as a result can become more bit; he just started reaching for the family cat.
compassionate.        Answer: Sensorimotor
 Our brain now can do deductive reasoning, 5. When Duane headed out on his "big
which means we can compare two expedition," he wasn't that worried about
statements and reach a logical generalization. getting lost. He knew that he would just have
 Our new mental skills allow us to plan our life to go back the same way he had
systemically and prioritize. And we can make come. Answer: Concrete Operational
assumptions about events that have no 6. A tornado had touched down just up the road
necessary relation to reality.  from Jennifer's house. Luckily no one was
 We now also can philosophize and just think hurt, but a couple of homes were heavily
about thinking itself.  damaged. The storm left quite an impression
 Our new sense of our identity now also on Jennifer. She kept asking her mother why
creates egocentric thoughts and some start to the storm had to be so mean. Answer:
see an imaginary audience watching them all Preoperational
the time. Piaget believed in lifelong learning 7. Donna's new hair style was not all that she
but insisted that the formal operational stage anticipated. She felt ugly and she didn't want
is the final stage of our cognitive to go to school. Her mother tried to convince
development.  her that it would be alright and that her
friends would understand. It didn't help.
 Jean Piaget’s first interests were animals and
Donna, in tears, said that her mother couldn't
he published his first scientific paper on
possibly understand how she felt; then she
albino sparrows in 1907 when he was just 11
slammed her bedroom door. Answer:
years old. In 1920, he began working with
Formal Operational
standardized intelligence tests. He realized
that younger children consistently make
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
types of mistakes that older children do not.
He concluded that they must think differently  Vygotsky’s Theory of Social Development
and spent the rest of his life studying the argues that community and language play a
intellectual development of children.  central part in learning. While Jean Piaget
concluded that children’s cognitive
SEATWORK: development happens in stages, Vygotsky
rejected his ideas and believed that children
1. When asked what the saying "You can lead a develop independently of specific stages as
horse to water, but you can't make it drink" the result of social interactions.
means, Patrice said that it meant that you can  Vygotsky claimed that we are born with four
provide someone with an opportunity, but it 'elementary mental functions’: Attention,
doesn't necessarily mean that they will take Sensation, Perception, and Memory.It is our
advantage of it.  Answer: Formal social and cultural environment that allows
Operational    us to use these elementary skills to develop
2. Twin brothers go "trick or treating" one and finally gain 'higher mental functions.'
Halloween. They went to the same houses
 This development ideally happens in "The
Zone of Proximal Development".
 First, there is what we can do on our own.
Then there is the Zone of Proximal
Development, which represents what we can
do with the help of an adult, a friend,
technology or what Vygotsky called the More
Knowledgeable Other. Last, there is what’s
beyond our reach.
 To illustrate this let us think of twins who are
raised in a community in which boys are
expected to learn and succeed, while girls are
only expected to be pretty. At the age of 10
months, both have the ability to crawl and
are in the zone of proximal development for
learning how to stand on their feed.
 The More Knowledgeable Other, in this case,
the father, provides the boy with
opportunities to practice in a playroom that
he has equipped with scaffolding and other
objects. The boy is encouraged to explore the
equipment, and eventually, he uses it to pull
himself up. A few hours later he’s cruising
along the structures. And a few days later
he’s standing on his feet. The girl also has the
potential to stand but does not receive any
support in learning the skill.
 When we compare the two we see that, while
the girl is still trying to get up, the boy has
moved into a new zone. He knows how to
balance while standing and now has the
potential to learn how to walk. Both will
eventually learn how to walk, but, according
to Vygotsky, the boy will be more skilled.
 The same principles apply to all learning and
the development of higher cognitive
functions. And only those learning with the
assistance of a capable mentor can reach the
full potential of their ability.
 Vygotsky, therefore, believed that inside the
Zone of Proximal Development, learning can
precede development. This means a child is
able to learn skills that go beyond their
natural maturity.
 He also established an explicit connection
between speech and mental concepts,
arguing that inner speech develops from
external speech via a gradual process of
"internalization”. This means that thought
itself develops as a result of conversation.
 Therefore, younger children who don't finish
this process can only "think out loud". Once
the process is complete, inner speech and
spoken language become independent.
 Lev Vygotsky died of tuberculosis in 1934, at
the age of 37. Despite his young age, he
became one of the most influential
psychologists of the 20th century. He left the
following advice for educators: “By giving
students practice in talking with others, we
give them frames for thinking on their own.”
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
 Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development identifies eight stages in which
a healthy individual should pass through
from birth to death. At each stages we
encounter different needs, ask new questions
and meet people who influence our behavior
and learning.
 Basic Trust vs. Mistrust, Infancy (1-2
years) - As infants, we ask ourselves if we
can trust the world and we wonder if it's safe.
We learn that if we can trust someone now,
we can also trust others in the future. If we
experience fear, we develop doubt and
mistrust. The key to our development is our
mother.
 Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt, Early
childhood (2-4 years) - In our early
childhood, we experience ourselves and
discover our body. We ask: is it okay to be
me? If we are allowed to discover ourselves,
then we develop self-confidence. If we are
not, we can develop shame and self-doubt.
Both parents now play a major role.
 Initiative vs. Guilt, Preschool Age (4-5
years) - In preschool, we take initiative, try
out new things, and learn basic principles like
how round things roll. We ask: Is it okay for
me to do what I do? If we are encouraged, we
can follow our interests. If we are held back
or told that what we do is silly, we can
develop guilt. We are now learning from the
entire family.
 Industry vs. Inferiority, School Age (5-12
years) - Now we discover our own interests
and realize that we are different from others.
We want to show that we can do things right.
We ask if we can make it in this world? If we
receive recognition from our teachers or
peers we become industrious, which is
another word for hard-working. If we get too
much negative feedback, we start to feel
inferior and lose motivation. Our neighbors
and schools now influence us the most.
 Identity vs. Role Confusion, Adolescence
(13–19 years) - During adolescence, we
learn that we have different social roles. We
are friends, students, children, and citizens.
Many experience an identity crises. If our
parents now allow us to go out and explore,
we can find an identity. If they push us to
conform to their views, we can face role
confusion and feel lost. Key to our learning
are our peers and role models.
 Intimacy vs. Isolation, Early Adulthood
(20-40 years) - As young adults, we slowly
understand who we are and we start to let go
of the relationships we had built earlier in
order to fit in. We ask ourselves if we can
love? If we can make a long-term
 commitment, we are confident and happy. If
we cannot form intimate relationships, we
might end up feeling isolated and lonely. Our
friends and partners are now central to our
development.
 Generativity vs. Stagnation - Adulthood
(40-65) - When we reach our forties we
become comfortable, use our leisure time
creatively and maybe begin contributing to
society. Our concern is Generativity. If we
think that we are able to lead the next
generation into this world, we are happy. If
we did not resolve some conflicts earlier, we
can become pessimistic and experience
stagnation. People at home and at work are
now who influence us most.
 Ego Integrity vs. Despair, Maturity (65-
death) - As we grow older we tend to slow
down and begin to look back over our lives.
We ask: how have I done? If we think we did
well, we develop feelings of contentment and
integrity. If not, we can experience despair
and become grumpy and bitter. Time to
compare us with mankind.
 Erik Erikson was a German-American
psychologist who together with his wife Joan,
became known for his work on psychosocial
development. He was influenced by Sigmund
and Anna Freud and became famous for
coining the phrase "identity crisis." Although
Erikson lacked even a bachelor's degree, he
served as a professor at Harvard and Yale.
 Erikson’s Psychosocial Dilemmas
Adolescence and Young Adulthood
 Adolescence is the culturally defined period
between childhood and adulthood. All
cultures recognize this period of time but the
length of adolescence varies greatly from one
culture to another. Puberty is the time when
hormonal changes promote rapid physical
growth and sexual maturity. Most people
reach reproductive maturity in the early
teens but social and intellectual maturity may
not happen for years. Identity formation is a
key challenge faced by adolescents.
 Emerging adulthood is a socially accepted
period of extended adolescence. Emerging
adulthood is becoming more common in
affluent Westernized cultures; however, in
less affluent countries adolescents are
continuing to become adults at a much
younger age. Sociocultural factors play an
important role in defining the change from
child to adult.
Levels of Moral Development
 Kohlberg identified three levels of moral
development.
 Preconventional Moral Reasoning: Moral
thinking is guided by the consequences of
actions
 Conventional Moral Reasoning: Thinking
is based on a desire to please others or to
follow accepted authority, rules and values
 Postconventional Moral Reasoning: Moral
behavior is directed by self-chosen ethical
principles that tend to be general,
comprehensive, or universal.
Middle and Late Adulthood
 Middle-aged adults, ages 35 to 64, and later
adults, age 65 and older face life challenges
such as health, careers, marriage, children,
and parents. Well-being in adulthood
consists of six elements:
1. Self-acceptance
2. Positive relations with others
3. Autonomy
4. Environmental Mastery
5. Having a purpose in life
6. Continues Personal Growth
 Intellectual decline associated with aging is
limited at least through age 70. This is
especially true for individuals who remain
mentally active. Warner Schaie a
psychologist who studies aging and the aged
found people are most likely to stay mentally
sharp if:
1. Remain healthy
2. Live in a favorable environment
3. Involved in intellectually stimulating
activities
4. Flexible personality
5. Married to an intelligent spouse
6. Maintain perceptual processing speed by
staying active
7. Satisfied with midlife accomplishments
Stages of Grief and Loss
 The five stages of grief describe how people
may react to a loss.
 Dr. Elisabeth Kubler-Ross outlined the stages
in the 1960s.
 The stages originally described patients
reacting to their own terminal diagnosis.
 Today, these stages are acknowledged as
common feelings experienced when grieving
any kind of loss including the death of a loved
one.
 Denial: A refusal to believe the loss is real.
The brain protects itself until it has until it
has more time to absorb and process difficult
news.
 Anger: It may come after we admit that the
loss actually happened. This emotion can be
directed at any number of targets. It may
range anywhere from frustration to fury.
 Bargaining: During this stage, we attempt to
strike a deal with ourselves or a higher
power to cope with our pain. Guilt is also
common during this stage as we dwell on
past events, searching for things we could’ve
done differently.
 Depression: The deep sadness of depression
sets in when we realize the loss has really
happened and our life is forever changed.
This kind of depression is a natural response
for most people experiencing loss. It is not a
sign of mental illness.
 Acceptance: Reaching this stage doesn’t
mean grief is over. We understand the loss
has happened and we can’t change it.
Accepting this doesn’t mean we feel good
about it.
 If you’re grieving, you may recognize some of
these feelings, but you may not be
experiencing them in any particular order.
The truth is, grief does not always follow a
specific path. These stages are not directions;
they’re just a starting point to help you
understand some of what you might be
feeling as you go through a serious change in
your life.
MODULE 4- SENSATION & PERCEPTION
4.1SENSORY SYSTEMS
Introduction
 The primary function of our senses is to act
as biological transducers or devices that
convert one kind of energy into another.
Each sense is responsible for the translation
of a specific type of external energy into
patterns of activity in neurons. Sensations
are created from the information arriving
from the senses. The brain then processes
these messages and organizes them into
meaningful patterns or perceptions. It is
important to realize that seeing and hearing
actually takes place in your brain, not in your
eyes and ears.
 There is considerable selection that occurs
because sensory receptors do not transduce
every single energy they encounter.
Psychophysics is the study of the relationship
between physical stimuli and the sensations
they evoke in the human observer. This
research has shown that sense receptors
transduce only part of their target energy
range. The absolute threshold is the
minimum amount of physical energy needed
to produce a sensation.
 The flow of sensations to the brain is also
reduced by sensory adaptation. Sensory
adaptation is a decrease in sensory response
to an unchanging stimulus. For example,
when we are exposed to constant odor we get
few and few nerve impulses to the brain until
the odor is no longer noticed.
 Sensory analysis is the separation of sensory
information into important elements. As
senses process information they divide the
working into basic stimulus patterns or
perceptual features. As the senses select and
analyze the information they code the
information. Sensory coding is converting
important features of the world into neural
messages understood by the brain.
 Because our senses select, analyze, and filter
information until only the most important
information remains, our senses are
considered data reduction systems.
Selective Attention
 Selective attention is voluntarily focusing on
a specific sensory input. It appears to be
based on the ability of brain structures to
select and divert incoming sensory messages.
An example of this is the cocktail party effect
where you are in a group of people and
surrounded by voices, you can still select and
attend to the voice of the person you are
facing. We can also suffer from inattentional
blindness where we fail to notice a stimulus
because our attention is focused elsewhere.
 As humans, we feel like we are taking in the
world like a picture. We feel like everything
that is there is documented for our later use.
However, experiments like the invisible
gorilla have demonstrated that we miss a lot
of what is going on around us. Simons and
Chabris first conducted the experiment you
just participated in in 1999.
 In that paper, they explained that people
missed the gorilla because of a phenomenon
known as inattentional blindness. We take in
a lot of sensory information, but we don’t
have the processing power to make sense of
it all. Therefore, our brain become selective
about what information it processes and
what information gets cast aside. We
selectively pay attention to that information
which will help us perform a task. In this
case, the task at hand is to count the number
of basketball passes made by the team in
white shirts. The team running around in
 black shirts makes that process more
difficult. So, we inhibit or actively don’t pay
attention to the team in black shirts. Because
the gorilla is also black, many people end up
inhibiting him as well. This causes a large
percentage of people to completely miss a
large hairy animal walking directly through
their line of vision.
 The study of selective attention has many
real-world applications, perhaps none more
important than distracted driving.
 After car accidents, it is common for people
to say they never saw the person or object
that they hit. Selective attention tells us that
this is probably true. When our attention is
directed elsewhere, whether it be reading a
text message or talking on the phone, or even
something less egregious like watching
oncoming traffic instead of a pedestrian
walking in the crosswalk just in front of your
car. We can easily fail to notice important
stimuli in our environment, and that can have
disastrous consequences.
4.2VISION, HEARING, SMELL, & TASTE
Vision
 The visual spectrum is the spread of
electromagnetic energies to which the eyes
respond. The visible spectrum is made up of
a narrow range of wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation. Visible light starts
at short wavelengths of 400 nanometers
which we see as purple. Longer light waves
with a wavelength of 700 nanometers
produce blue, green, yellow, orange, and red.
Hue refers to the basic color categories of
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and
violet. White light is a mixture of many
wavelengths. Colors from a narrow band of
wavelengths are very saturated. Brightness
corresponds to the amplitude or height of
light waves. Waves of greater amplitude are
taller, carry more energy and cause the colors
we see to appear more intense or brighter.
Structure of the Eye
1. Sclera - white outer layer of the eyeball; at
the front of the eye it is continuous with the
cornea.
2. Cornea – the clear outermost layer of the eye.
3. Lens – transparent structure in the eye that
helps to bend light to be focused on the
retina.
4. Pupil – hole in the center of the iris that
allows light into the eye.
5. Iris – responsible for controlling the diameter
and size of the pupil and thus the amount of
light reaching the retina. It is the colored part
of the eye.
6. Retina – the light sensitive layer at the back
of the eye.
7. Optic Nerve – transmits information from the
retina to the brain. The place where the optic
nerve exits the eye leaves a small blind spot
in the visual field that is filled in by the brain.
Rod & Cones
 Rods and cones are the two types of image
receptors in the eye. Cones are the visual
receptors for colors and daylight visual
activity. Rods are visual receptors for dim
light that produce only black and white
sensations. There are about 5 million cones
and 120 million rods in each eye.
 The retina has a hole in each causing each eye
to have a blind spot because there are no
receptors where the optic nerve passes out of
the eye and blood vessels enter.
 Visual acuity or sharpness is also affected by
rods and cones. The fovea, a small cup-
shaped area in the middle of the retina,
contains only cones. These tightly packed
cones in the fovea produce the sharpest
images. Normal acuity is 20/20 vision where
at a 20 feet distance you can distinguish what
the average person can see at 20 feet. If your
vision is 20/200 everything is a blur and you
need glasses.
 Peripheral vision is vision at the edge of the
visual field. Most of our peripheral vision is
rod vision. Rods are not high resolution but
are quite sensitive to movement in the
peripheral vision. Rods are also highly
responsive to dim light. For this reason, the
best night vision comes from looking next to
an object you want to see.
Color Vision
 One theory of color vision is the trichromatic
theory. This theory holds that there are three
 types of cones, each most sensitive to either
red, green, or blue. All other colors result
from the combinations of these three.
 The issue with this therapy is that there are
four colors of light that seem to be primarily
red, green, blue, and yellow. This led to the
second theory of color vision.
 The opponent-process theory states that
vision analyzes colors into either-or
messages. This means that the visual system
can produce messages for either red or green,
yellow or blue, black or white. According to
this theory, fatigue caused by making one
response produces an afterimage of the
opposite color as the system recovers
resulting in afterimages.
 Afterimages are visual sensations that persist
after a stimulus is removed like seeing a spot
after a flashbulb goes off. Both of these
theories are correct.
 The three-color theory applies to the retina.
The opponent-process theory better explains
what happens in optic pathways and the
brain after the information leaves the eye.
 Color blindness is the total inability to
perceive colors. The color-blind person either
lacks cones or has cones that do not function
normally. A person with total color blindness
sees the world in black and white.
 Color weakness is the inability to distinguish
some colors. About 8% of white males are
red-green color blind meaning they see red
and green as the same color, usually a
yellowish-brown.
 Dark adaptation is the increased retinal
sensitivity to light. This happens when you
move from an area of bright light into a dark
area. It will take your eyes a bit to readjust so
you can see in the dark area.
 People, such as pilots, who have to move
quickly from lighted surroundings to night
darkness use red light illumination. This is
because the rods are insensitive to red light.
Structure of the Ear
1. Pinna – the visible, external part of the ear.
2. Ear Canal – the tubular passage of the outer
ear leading to the tympanic membrane.
3. Tympanic Membrane – also called the
eardrum. It separates the outer ear from the
middle ear.
4. Cochlea – a snail-shaped organ that makes up
the inner ear.
5. Semicircular Canals – three tiny, fluid-filled
tubes in your inner ear that help you keep
your balance.
6. Ossicles – chain of three tiny bones in the
middle ear that transmit sound vibrations
from the tympanic membrane to the oval
window of the inner ear.
Hearing
 Waves of compression in the air, or
vibrations, are the stimulus for hearing. The
frequency or wavelength of sound waves
determines their pitch and the amplitude
determines their loudness. Hearing involves
a chain of events.
 Journey of sound to the Brain – when a
trumpet is played, it makes sound waves in
the air. The outer ear catches the waves,
which then travel to a narrow passageway
called the ear canal.
 The sound waves reach the eardrum, which is
a membrane roughly the size of a dime. The
sound waves make the eardrum vibrate,
which in turn vibrates three tiny bones called
the malleus, incus, and stapes. These bones
amplify or increase the sound vibrations then
send them to the cochlea.
 The cochlea is filled with fluid and the sound
vibrations make this fluid ripple, which
creates waves.
 Hair-like structures called stereocilia, sit on
top of the hair cells and are grouped together
as hair cell bundles inside the cochlea. The
hair cells inside the cochlea ride these waves
and the hair bundles are moved. The hair
bundle on top of the hair cell turns these
movements into electrical signals.
 As the hair bundles are moved, ions rush into
the top of the hair cells, causing the release of
chemicals at the bottom of the hair cells.
 The chemicals bind to the auditory nerve
cells and create an electric signal which
travels along the auditory nerve to the brain.
 Different hair cells respond to different
frequencies of sound. The hair cells at the
base of the cochlea detect higher pitched
sounds, such as a piccolo or flute. The hair
cells toward the top of the spiral detect
progressively lower pitched sounds, such as a
trumpet or trombone. At the very top, or
apex of the spiral, the hair cells detect the
lowest pitched sounds, such as a tuba.
 The auditory nerve carries the electric signal
to the brain, which interprets the messages
as sounds that we recognize and understand.
Types of Hearing Loss
 Conductive Hearing Loss – a problem in the
outer or middle ear that prevents sound from
reaching the inner ear. For example, a
blockage or deformity in the middle ear can
prevent the ossicles from vibrating properly.
Middle ear infections or a ruptured eardrum
are common causes of a conductive hearing
loss. Often, a conductive hearing loss is
temporary and can be treated with
medication or surgery. When the hearing loss
can be treated medically or surgically, the
result is a permanent conductive hearing
loss. In these cases, many people benefit from
middle ear implants or conventional hearing
aids.
 Sensorineural Hearing Loss – the result of a
problem in the inner ear. It occurs when hair
cells in the cochlea are missing or damaged.
These hair cells are responsible for
producing precise electrical signals that the
brain needs in order to interpret sound.
When these hair cells are missing, the result
is hearing impairment. When only some of
the hair cells are missing, the hearing loss is
classified as mild to moderate. In these cases,
a middle ear implant, capable of vibrating the
moving structures of the inner ear, or a
conventional hearing aid may be a viable
solution. Some individuals only have hearing
loss in high frequencies, also referred to as
partial deafness. In these cases, only the hair
cells at the base of the cochlea are damaged.
In the inner part of the cochlea, the apex, the
hair cells which are responsible for
processing the low tones are still intact.
Combined Electric and Acoustic Simulation,
or EAS, was developed specifically for these
individuals, to maximize the use of their
natural, residual hearing. When the hair cells
of the cochlea are completely absent or
damaged, the person suffers from a severe to
profound hearing loss. For many individuals
with this condition, a cochlear implant may
be the best solution.
 Mixed Hearing Loss – a combination of
sensorineural and conductive hearing losses.
It results from problems in the outer or
middle ear as well as the inner ear.
Treatment options for this type of hearing
loss include medication, surgery, hearing
aids, or middle ear implants.
Smell and Taste
 Olfaction, sense of smell, and gustation, sense
of taste, are chemical senses. They are
receptors that respond to chemical
molecules.
 Air enters the nose and flows over about 5
million nerve fibers in the lining of the upper
nasal passages. The proteins on the surface of
the fibers are sensitive to different airborne
molecules. When the fiber is stimulated it
sends signals to the brain.
 The lock and key theory of olfaction states
that odors are related to the shapes of
chemical modules. It appears that there are
different shaped holes or pockets on the
surface of the olfactory receptors.
 Like a puzzle piece, chemicals produce odors
when parts of the molecule match a hole of
the same shape.
 Humans can detect at least 10,000 different
odors.
 Anosmia is smell blindness for a single odor.
5 out of every 100 people experience some
degree of anosmia. Infection, allergies,
exposure to chemicals, and blows to the head
are all risk factors for anosmia.
 There are at least four basic tastes: sweet,
salt, sour, and bitter.
 Humans are most sensitive to bitter and least
sensitive to sweet. There are many different
flavors. Flavors include not only taste but
also texture, temperature, smell, and even
pain (“hot” peppers”). This explains why we
are unable to taste when we cannot smell like
when we have a cold.
 Taste receptor cells or taste buds are mainly
located on the top side of the tongue and
especially around the edges.
 Sweet and bitter tastes appear to be based on
a lock and key match. Saltiness and sourness
are triggered by a direct flow of charged
atoms into the tips of taste cells.
Somesthetic Senses
 Somesthetic senses include skin senses,
vestibular senses, and kinesthetic sense. The
skin senses are touch, pressure, pain, cold,
and warmth. Sensitivity to each of these is
related to the number of receptors found in
an area of the skin. The number of skin
receptors varies from one area to the next.
 Pain receptors also vary in their distribution.
The warming system is pain based on large
nerve fibers. It warns that bodily damage
may be occurring. The reminding system is
pain based on small nerve fibers and it
reminds the brain that the body has been
injured.
 Gate control theory suggests that pain
messages from the different nerve fibers pass
through the same neural gate in the spinal
cord. If the gate is closed by one pain
message other messages may not be able to
pass through. Messages carried by large, fast
nerve fibers can prevent the slower,
“reminding system” pain from reaching the
brain by closing the spinal gate directly.
 Gate control theory also helps explain
counter-irritation, a widely used pain control
technique. A counterirritant is a substance
that creates irritation in one location with the
goal of lessening discomfort in another
location.
MODULE 5- CONDITIONING & to the model and remember what was done.
LEARNING
5.1 LEARNING
Introduction
 Learning is defined as a relatively permanent
change in behavior due to experience. There
are different types of learning. Associative
learning occurs when a person or animal
forms a simple association among various
stimuli and behavior. This type of learning
requires little awareness or thought.
Humans also use cognitive learning which
refers to understanding, knowing,
anticipating, or otherwise making use of
information-rich higher mental processes.
Associative Learning
 In order to understand associative learning,
we have to understand antecedents and
consequences. Antecedents are events that
precede a response and consequences are the
effects that follow that response. Classical
conditioning is a type of associative learning
based on what happens before we respond.
It starts with a stimulus that triggers a
behavior as a response. In classical
conditioning, an antecedent stimulus that
doesn’t produce a response is linked with one
that does.
 The other form of associative learning is
operant conditioning. Operant conditioning
is based on the consequences of responding.
A behavior can be followed by either a
positive consequence or reinforcer. Or it can
be followed by a negative consequence or
punisher. The reinforcer or the punisher
determines whether or not the behavior is
likely to happen again.
 Feedback or information returned to a
person about the effects a response has had
is an important part of cognitive learning.
Feedback helps to explain why much of
human learning occurs in the absence of
obvious reinforcers. Feedback is most
effective when it is frequent, immediate, and
detailed. Frequent feedback keeps learners
from practicing errors.
Observational Learning
 Observational learning is achieved by
watching and imitating the actions of another
or noting the consequences of those actions.
By observing a model a person may learn
new responses, learn to carry out or avoid
previously learned responses, or learn a
general rule that can be applied to various
situations.
 In order for observational learning to occur
the learner must start with paying attention
Then the learner must be able to reproduce
the modeled behavior. If the model was
successful at the task or was rewarded for a
response, the learner will be more likely to
imitate the behavior. One a new response is
tried, normal reinforcement or feedback will
determine if it is repeated.
Classical Conditioning
 Classical conditioning is a form of learning in
which reflex responses are associated with
new stimuli.
 WATCH LATER
 Elements of Conditioning
Principles of Classical Conditioning
 There are six principles of classical
conditioning:
 Acquisition: The period in conditioning in
which a response is reinforced. The optimal
delay between the conditioned and
unconditioned stimulus is ½ second to about
5 seconds.
 Higher-order conditioning: classical
conditioning in which conditioned stimulus is
used to reinforce further learning. A information. It can store nearly limitless
conditioned stimulus is used as if it were an
unconditioned stimulus
 Expectancies: An anticipation concerning
future events or relationships. During
conditioning, the brain learns to expect that
the unconditioned stimulus will follow the
conditioned stimulus
 Extinction: The weakening of a conditioned
response through the removal of
reinforcement. There is also a spontaneous
recovery where the reappearance of a
learned response after its apparent
extinction.
 Generalization: The tendency to respond to
stimuli similar to, but not identical to, a
conditioned stimulus.
 Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to
respond differently to similar stimuli.
MODULE 6- MEMORY AND COGNITION
6.1. MEMORY
Stages of Memory
 Memory is an active mental system for
receiving, encoding, storing, organizing,
altering, and retrieving information.
 In order for information to be stored for a
long time, it has to pass through three
successive memories: sensory memory,
short-term memory, and long-term memory.
 The information has to be encoded or
changed into a usable form, stored or held in
the memory system, and retrieved or located
and taken out of storage. This has to happen
in each of the three types of memory.
 We start with sensory memory. Information
is automatically encoded in sensory memory
which will hold an exact copy of what you are
seeing for a few seconds or less. Iconic
memories of visual sensory images are stored
for about half of a second. When you hear
information sensory memory stores it for
about two seconds as an echoic memory or a
brief flurry of activity in the auditory system.
 Short-term memory stores small amounts of
information. We are consciously aware of
short-term memories for about 12 or so
seconds. When short-term memory is
combined with other mental processes it acts
as working memory.
 Working memory briefly holds information
needed to think and solve problems.
Information that is important or meaningful
is retrieved from short term memory and
encoded in long-term memory.
 Long-term memory is used for the relatively
permanent storage of meaningful
amounts of information. Research suggests
that the more you know the easier it becomes
to add new information into memory.
 When we want to use knowledge from our
long-term memory the information is
returned to our short-term memory.
Encoding and Enhancing Memories
 Watch later
Types of Long-Term Memory
 Procedural Memory: Long-term memories of
conditions responses and learned skills
 Declarative Memory: Part of the long-term
memory containing specific factual
information
 Semantic Memory: Subpart of declarative
memory that records impersonal knowledge
about the world
 Episodic Memory: Subpart of declarative
memory that records personal experiences
that are linked with specific times and places.
Loftis and Palmer Car Accident Study
 Eyewitness testimony is a cornerstone of our
legal system. Many people have been locked
up or set free based on the memories of
people who were at the scene of a crime. We
tend to think of our memories as a picture of
the past. We know we don’t remember
everything, but what we do remember we
think of as very accurate. However, in 1975,
Loftis and Palmer published an experiment
examining the accuracy of eyewitness
recollections that would throw that notion on
its head.
 Participants in the study began by watching a
video of two cars colliding at an intersection.
 After watching the video they were asked a
series of questions about what they saw. One
key question was different between the two
experimental groups. One group was asked
how fast the cars were going when they “hit”
each other, the other was asked how fast the
cars were going when they “smashed into”
each other. The difference in the verb ended
up being very important. The group who got
the “smashed into” verb rated the cars as
going faster. Additionally, one week later, the
subjects were called and asked if they
remembered seeing broken glass at the
scene. There had been no broken glass,
however, 32% of those who got the
“smashed” verb recalled broken glass, while
only 14% of those who got hit did.
 Why the difference? Researchers have
suggested that our memory is not like a
 videotape, where all details are present.
Rather, people remember the general gist of
the event and fill in the details based on their
knowledge of similar situations. People have
an understanding of what happens in a car
wreck, they know that typically, there is
damage to the vehicles, people may get
injured, and so on. When they remember a
car accident such as the one you just
watched, they don’t remember everything;
instead, they rely primarily on their
knowledge of car accidents to fill in the
details. So, when asked how fast the cars
were going when they smashed into each
other, participants thought about a more
severe accident then when hit was used. This
caused them to recall details that are
consistent with a more severe accident, such
as broken glass.
 This research is enormously important
because it not only demonstrates that
people’s memories for the event can be
inaccurate, but that memories can be altered
based on questioning that takes place after
the fact. The questioning of eyewitnesses is a
common part of police investigations,
however, this research indicates that our
legal system needs to consider the
ramifications of police questioning.
Measuring Memory
 Have you ever tried to remember something
only to find it on the tip of your tongue? That
is the feeling where you know the
information but cannot recall it at that very
moment. This is what happens when a
memory is available meaning it is stored in
your memory but you cannot access it or
locate and retrieve it to complete the
memory.
 Deja vu is the feeling that you have already
experienced a situation that you are actually
experiencing for the first time. These
experiences feel familiar but yet strange
because a past memory was retrieved but
was too weak to yield adequate details.
 Terms to know: Recall: Supply or reproduce
memorized information with a minimum of
external cues
 Serial Position Effect: Tendency to make the
most errors in remembering the middle
items of an ordered list
 Recognition: Ability to correctly identify
previously learned information
 Relearning: Learning something again that
was previously learned, used to measure
memory of prior learning.
MODULE 7- MOTIVATION AND
EMOTION/PSYCHOLOGICAL
DISORDERS
7.1. MOTIVATION
Introduction
 Motivation is the internal processes that
initiate, sustain, direct, and terminate
activities. Many of our motivated activities
start with a need or internal deficiency. The
need causes a drive or energized
motivational state to develop. The drive then
activates a response or action to push us
towards a goad or the target of the motivated
behavior.
 Motivated behavior can be external stimuli as
well as by the push of internal needs. The
pull of a goal is called its incentive value
meaning the goal’s appeal is beyond its
ability to fill a need. Some goals are so
desirable that they can motivate behavior in
the absence of an internal need. A goal with a
low incentive value can be rejected even if
they meet the internal need.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 WATCH LATER
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
 When you freely choose to do something
because you enjoy it or because you want to
improve your abilities your motivation is
likely intrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is
defined as motivation that comes from within
and is based on the personal enjoyment of a
task or activity. Extrinsic motivation on the
other hand is motivation based on an obvious
external reward or obligations. These
rewards could include pay, grades, awards,
or even approval.
MODULE 8- SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Introduction
 Social psychology is the scientific study of
how individuals behave, think, and feel in
social situations. We all belong to different
and overlapping social groups. In each
group, we have a position in the group. Social
roles are patterns of behavior expected of
persons in various social positions. Ascribed
roles are roles assigned to a person or roles
not under a person’s control. Examples are
male or female, son, adolescent, and inmate.
Achieved roles are voluntarily attained such
as a spouse, teacher, scientist, and criminal.
 Philip Zimbardo conducted the Stanford
Prison study in which he paid normal healthy
male college students to serve as “inmates”
 and “guards” in a simulated prison. The
ascribed social roles of "prisoner" and
"guard" were so powerful that in just a few
days the experiment became “reality” for
those involved. After six days, the
experiment had to be halted. Zimbardo
interpreted the results of his simulated
prison study as an indication of the powerful
influence of social roles on people.
Group Structure, Cohesion, and Norms
 Group structure and cohesion are the two
most important dimensions of any group.
Group structure consists of the network of
rules, communication pathways, and power
in a group. Groups can range from a high
degree of structure to very unstructured.
 Group cohesiveness is the degree of
attraction among group members and their
commitment to remaining in the group.
Cohesiveness is strong for in-groups or
groups with which a person mainly identifies.
Out-groups on the other hand are ones that
we do not identify.
 Social status is an individual’s position in a
social structure, especially with respect to
power, privilege, or importance. Higher
social statuses bestow special privileges and
respect.
 We are also greatly affected by group norms.
Norms are widely accepted but often
unspoken standards of conduct for
appropriate behavior.
Social Comparisons & Attributions
 Social cognition is the process of thinking
about ourselves and others in a social
context. A couple of examples of social
cognition are social comparison, attribution,
and attitudes. Social comparison is
comparing our own actions, feelings,
opinions, and or abilities to those of others.
We typically compare ourselves with people
who have similar backgrounds, abilities, and
circumstances.
 Attribution is the learned tendency to
respond to people, objects, or institutions in a
positive or negative way. Behavior can be
attributed to external causes or ones that lie
outside of a person or internal causes that lie
within a person. We rarely know the real
reason for others’ actions, this is why we tend
to infer causes from circumstances. The
fundamental attribution error is the tendency
to attribute the behavior of others to internal
causes like personality, likes, and so forth
even if in reality they are caused by external
forces or circumstances. The actor-observer
bias is the tendency to attribute the behavior
of others to internal causes while attributing
our own behavior to external causes.
Attitudes
 An attitude is a mixture of belief and emotion
that predisposes a person to respond to other
people, objects, or groups in a positive or
negative way. The belief component of
attitude is what you believe about a
particular object or issue. The emotional
component is the feelings towards the
attitudinal object. The action component
refers to your actions toward various people,
objects, or institutions.
 Attitudes can form through direct contact or
personal experience with the object of the
attitude. Attitudes can also form through
chance conditions or learning that takes
place by chance or coincidence. Interacting
with others is another way attitudes form.
Group membership and child-rearing can
also affect attitude. Finally, the media can
influence attitude. This can include
newspapers, television, and the internet.
Persuasion
 Persuasion is a deliberate attempt to change
attitudes or beliefs with information and
arguments. Persuasion can range from daily
media commercials to a personal discussion
with friends. This type of persuasion is
external persuasion.
Cognitive Dissonance
 Cognitive dissonance is the internal process
that can lead to attitude change. This occurs
when people act in ways that are inconsistent
with their attitudes or self-image. These
contradicting or clashing thoughts cause
discomfort. This inconsistency can motivate
people to make their thoughts and actions
match.
 Watch Later