I.EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 1.

Nonscientific Sources of Data

Data we gather from sources that seem credible and trustworthy,
Science but may not always be valid. Family, friends, relatives, people in
Content – what we know authority, people we admire, reports from media, book we read
Process – gathering data, noting relationships, and offering
relationships  Confirmation Bias
Scientists- Rely on Scientific Method Once we believe we know something, we tend to overlook instances
that might disconfirm our beliefs, and we seek, instead,
Psychology- Science of behavior confirmatory instances of behavior.
Psychologists- Understanding Behavior using scientific approach “He cares for me he did...” “He cheats on me…”
Use scientific evidences in our knowledge about psychological
processes 2. Nonscientific Inference
THE NEED FOR SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY
 Trait Attribution Theory
Why do we need to use scientific method? Data that we collect about others come in the form of traits we
Scientific Method assign to them. (Trait > Situation)
 Observation “Ay nadapa…Lampa!”
 Question
 Hypothesis  Gambler’s Fallacy
 Experimentation People are not very good at using data to estimate the true
 Analysis probabilities of events.
 Conclusion 5 Win Streak na ako sa ML… tama na ‘to! Mauusog na to pag umisa
pa ako.”
Commonsense Psychology
In all our daily lives, we all collect and use psychological data (non-  Overconfidence Bias
scientific) to understand behavior of others or to guide your own Our predictions, guesses, and explanations tend to feel much more
behavior. correct than they actually are, and the more data we have available
The kind of everyday, nonscientific data gathering that shapes our (accurate or not), the more confidence we have in our judgments
expectations and beliefs and directs our behavior toward others about behavior.
“I’m super duper sure pasado ako!”
Constrained by:
1. Sources of psychological information * These are all shortcuts, and most of the time, they allow us to function well
2. Inferential strategies enough, but they are not always accurate. If we want to rely on our conclusions
and use them as general principles to predict behavior, we need to proceed more
scientifically.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN SCIENCE
1. The Scientific Mentality
Behavior must follow a natural order; therefore it can be
predicted.
Determinism - Research Psychologists believe that there are
specifiable causes for the way people behave and that these causes
can be discovered through research
2. Gathering Empirical Data
Data should be observable or experienced. Data can be
verified or disproved through investigation.
3. Seeking General Principles General Principles
– What structures our observation
Law – when these principles have the generality to apply to all
situations
Hypothesis (stemming out from theory) - Typically, we do not have
enough information to state a general law, but we advance through
THEORY
4. Good Thinking
Being open to new ideas even when they contradict our prior
beliefs or attitudes. It follows the rules of logic. Conclusions will
follow from the data, whether they in agreement with our
predictions or not.
Principle of Parsimony  Simplicity, precision, and clarity of
thought.
5. Self-Correction
Changes in scientific explanations and theories are an extremely
important part of scientific progress. The content of science
changes as we acquire new scientific information, and old
information is reevaluated in light of new facts.
6. Publicizing Results
Professional and special interest groups and attend professional
conferences to exchange information about their current work.
Number of scientific journals is growing, and new journals are
constantly being added in specialized disciplines.
7. Replication
We should be able to repeat our procedures and get the same
results again if we have gathered data objectively and if we
have followed good thinking. Findings that are obtainable by
only one researcher have very limited scientific value.
OBJECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE?
Description
 Systematic and unbiased account of the observed
characteristics of behaviors
 Case Studies Field Studies
Prediction
 Capacity for knowing in advance when certain behaviors
would be expected to occur
 Correlational Research Quasi-experimental Design
Explanation
 Includes knowledge of the conditions that reliability
reproduce the occurrence of a behavior
 Experimental Research
Control
 Application of what has been explained through
experimentation
 Experimental Research (rarely)
Applied Research - Research that is designed to solve real-world
problems
Basic Research - Designed to test theories or to explain
psychological phenomena in humans and animals
TOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
How can we measure psychology variables?
Observation - Systematic noting and recording of events
 Behavioral, Observation, Self-Report, Self-Monitoring
Measurement - Assignment of numerical values to objects or events
or their characteristics according to conventional rules
 Qualitative Data & Quantitative Data (through assessment
tools)
Experimentation Process undertaken to test hypothesis that
particular behavioral events will occur reliably in certain, specifiable
situations
 Minimum Requirements
1. manipulative
2. observable
3. measurable
SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
The Scientific Explanation in Psychological Science
Experimental Psychology refers to work done by those who apply
experimental methods to the study of behavior and the processes
that underlie it
employ human participants and animal subjects to study a great
many topics, including (among others) sensation & perception,
memory, cognition, learning, motivation, emotion; developmental
processes, social psychology, and the neural substrates of all of
these.
THE PSYCHOLOGY EXPERIMENT
a controlled procedure in which at least two different treatment
conditions are applied to subjects and then behaviors are measured
and compared to test a hypothesis about the effects of those
treatments on behavior
Why experiments are conducted?
Critical Experiments To test theories
What-if Experiments No theory; just wants to see what happens
Repeat or replicate a previous finding extending the previous
procedures by adding something new while retaining something old
The Experimental Research Process
Forming a Hypothesis
- Predicting the relations among two or more variables
Operationalizing Variables
- Converting abstract concepts into testable form
 Independent Variable (manipulated)
 Dependent Variable (observed)
Developing a Standard Procedure
- Setting up experimental conditions and control
 Antecedent Conditions (are circumstances that come
before the event or behavior that we want to explain)
 When XYZ is the set antecedent, the outcomes is a
particular behavior. If XYZ as antecedent was set again, we
expect the same outcome
Developing a Standard Procedure
- Setting up experimental conditions and control
 Neutral Conditions (original set of conditions with no
manipulation)
 Treatment Conditions (a created specific sets of antecedent
conditions)
Selecting and Assessing Participants
- Randomly assigning subjects to different condition
  Experimental Group (those who will receive treatment Advantages of Experimental Psychology
conditions)  Better control of extraneous variables
 Control Group (those who will receive neutral conditions)  Is economy for obtaining data quickly and efficiently
Selecting and Assessing Participants
- Randomly assigning subjects to different condition Necessary vs Sufficient Conditions
 Between Design 1 Treatment 2 Groups Sufficient – possible
 Within Design 2/+ Treatments 1 Group Necessary – must
Selecting and Assessing Participants To know whether conditions are necessary or sufficient, search for
- Randomly assigning subjects to different condition the CAUSE.
 Characteristics of Experiment
1. Random Selection PSEUDOSCIENCE TO PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
2. Random Assignment
3. Equivalent Pseudoscience  Any field of study that gives the appearance of
4. Manipulation being scientific but has no true scientific basis and has not been
5. More than one treatments confirmed using the scientific method (e.g. spiritualism, astrology,
6. Controlled EMDR)
Selecting and Assessing Participants
- Randomly assigning subjects to different condition Mental Philosophers
 How to achieve CONTROL? • Phenomenology • Introspection • Observation of own mental
1. Random assignment processes
2. Identical presentation of treatment conditions Experimental Science
3. Constant environment, procedures, and measuring • Wilhem Wundt (Leipzig Germany) • G. Stanley Hall (John Hopkins
instruments University)
Applying statistical techniques
- Making descriptive and inferential results The Organization of the Research
Drawing Conclusions I Introduction
- Evaluating the hypothesis; addressing study limitations and M Methodology
future hypothesis R Results
 If XYZ set of antecedents always leads to a particular DDiscussion
behavior, whereas other treatments do not, we can infer
that XYZ causes the behavior.
 Kinds of relationship: Temporal Relationship Spatial
Relationship Logical Relationship
II. RESEARCH ETHICS
Rights and Dignity of Participants
1. In all aspects, we respect the rights, safeguard the dignity, and
protect and promote the welfare of research participants.
2. Before beginning any research work in a community not our own
or not familiar to us, we obtain essential information about their
mores, culture, social structure, customs, and traditions.
3. We respect and abide by their cultural expectations, provided
that this does not contravene any of the ethical principles of this
Code of Ethics.
4. We respect the rights of research participants should they wish to
discontinue their participation at any time.
5. We do not contribute nor engage in research which contravenes
international humanitarian law, such as development of methods
intended to torture persons, development of prohibited weapons,
or destruction of the environment.
6. It is our duty to ask participants about any factors that could bring
forth potential harm, such as pre-existing medical conditions, and to
detect, remove, or correct any foreseeable undesirable
consequences prior to research proper.
7. To ensure that participants’ rights are protected, we seek
independent and sufficient ethical review of the possible risks our
research may pose to them.
Informed Consent to Research
1. We do not just ask participants to sign in the consent form; we
recognize that informed consent happens due to the willingness
of the participants to work collaboratively with us.
2. We make sure that the consent form is translated in language or
dialect that the participants understand. We will take
reasonable measures to guarantee that the information was
understood.
3. When we conduct research with persons below 18 years of age,
we obtain informed assent from them and informed consent
from their parents or legal guardian.
4. When we conduct research with adult participants who have
difficulties in comprehension or communication, we obtain
informed consent from adult family members of the
participants and approval from independent advisors.
5. When we conduct research with detained persons, we pay
attention to special circumstances which could affect the
latter’s ability to give informed consent.
6. When obtaining informed consent as required in section III.J. of
this Code of Ethics, it is our duty to inform research participants
about:
a. the purpose of research, expected duration, and procedures;
b. mutual responsibilities;
c. their right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the
research once participation has begun;
d. the foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing;
e. reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence
their willingness to participate such as potential risks, discomfort, or
adverse effects
f. how to rescind consent if desired
g. any prospective research benefits;
h. protections and limits of confidentiality and/or anonymity;
i. incentives for participation; and,
j. whom to contact for questions about the research and research
participants’ rights.
We shall provide an opportunity for prospective participants to ask
questions and receive answers.
7. When conducting intervention research using experimental
treatments, it is our duty to clarify to participants at the
beginning of research the following:
a. experimental nature of the treatment
 b. services that will or will not be available to the control
group(s) if appropriate;
c. means by which assignment to treatment and control groups
will be made;
d. available treatment alternatives if an individual does not wish
to participate in the research or wishes to withdraw once a
study has begun; and,
e. compensation for or monetary costs of participating, and if
appropriate, including whether reimbursement from the
participant or a third-party payor will be sought.
8. In longitudinal research, we may need to obtain informed
consent on more than one occasion.
INFORMED CONSENT FOR RECORDING VIDEOS AND IMAGES
IN RESEARCH
1. It is our duty to obtain informed consent from research
participants before recording their voices or images for data
collection, except when:
a. the research consists only of naturalistic observations in
public places, and it is not anticipated that the recording
will be used in a manner that could cause personal
identification or harm; and
b. the research design includes deception, and consent for
the use of the recording is obtained during debriefing.
RESEARCH PARTICIPATION OF CLIENT, STUDENTS AND
SUBORDINATES
1. When we conduct research with our clients, students or
subordinates, we do not coerce them to participate, rather,
we inform them about their right not to participate and we
do not reprimand or penalize them for doing so.
2. When research participation is a course requirement or an
opportunity for extra credit, we inform our clients, students
or subordinates about equitable alternative activities that
could fulfill their educational or employment goals.
DISPENSING WITH INFORMED CONSENT FOR RESEARCH
1. We may dispense informed consent only on the following
conditions:
a. when we believe that the research would not distress or
create harm to participants or general welfare or when
our study involves:
I. the study or normal educational practices,
curricula, or classroom management methods
conducted in educational settings;
II. the study or normal educational practices,
curricula, or classroom management methods
conducted in educational settings;
III. only anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic
observations, or archival research for which
disclosure of responses would not place
participants at risk of criminal or civil liability or
damage their financial standing, employability,
or reputation, and confidentiality is protected;
IV. the study of factors related to job or
organization effectiveness conducted in
organizational settings which would not affect
the participants’ employability, and
confidentiality is protected; or,
b. when it is mandated by law or is an institutional
regulation.
OFFERING INDUCEMENTS FOR RESEARCH PARTICIPATION
1. We may fairly compensate participants for the use of their
time, energy, and knowledge, unless such compensation is
refused in advance.
2. We make reasonable efforts not to offer undue, excessive
or, inappropriate reward, financial or other inducements for
research participation, which could likely pressure or coerce
participation.
3. When we offer psychological and professional services as an
incentive for research participation, it is our duty to clarify
the nature of the services, including the risks, obligations
and limitations.
DECEPTION IN RESEARCH
1. We refrain from conducting research involving deception,
except: a. when we have determined that the use of
deceptive techniques is justified by the study’s significant
prospective scientific, educational, medical, or applied
value; and, b. when effective non-deceptive alternative
procedures are not possible.
2. We do not deceive prospective research participants about
our study that is reasonably expected to interfere their
decision to give informed consent. We ensure that level of
risk
3. It is our duty to explain any deception as an integral feature
of design and conduct of an experiment to those who
participated in research as soon as possible, preferably at
the end of their participation but not later than the end of
data gathering.
DEBRIEFING
1. We debrief by informing the participants that they have
contributed to the body of knowledge and we make sure
that they have also learned from their participation.
2. We give participants an opportunity to obtain the nature,
results, and conclusions of the research. We also take
reasonable steps to correct any misconceptions participants
have about our research, especially when the participants
were led to believe that the research has a different
purpose.
3. When participants’ trust may have been lost due to
incomplete disclosure or temporarily leading participants to
believe that the research had a different purpose, we seek
to reestablish trust and assure them that the research
procedures were carefully structured and necessary for
scientifically valid findings.
4. If scientific or humane values justify delaying or withholding
this information, we take reasonable measures to reduce
the risk of harm
5. When we become aware that our research procedures have
harmed a participant, we act to correct and minimize the
harm.
6. If after debriefing, the participants decided to withdraw
their data, we shall respect and grant their request. The
participants have the right to appeal that their own data,
including recordings, be destroyed.
OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
1. We respect the privacy and psychological well-being of
persons studied based on observational research. This
method is acceptable only when those being observed
would expect to be observed by strangers.
HUMANE CARE AND USE OF ANIMALS IN RESEARCH
1. We do not use animals in research, except when there is a
sufficient reason to say that it is the only way to:
a. further increase understanding of the structures and
processes underlying human or animal behavior;
 b. increase understanding of the specific specie used in the
study; or
c. eventually augment benefits to the health and welfare
of humans or other animals.
2. We comply with current laws, regulations and professional
standards when we acquire, care for, use, and dispose
animals used in research.
3. We take reasonable steps to ensure that animals used in
research are treated humanely and are not exposed to
unnecessary discomfort, pain, or disruption. If possible, a
psychologist trained in research methods and experience in
care of laboratory animals shall supervise all procedures in
researches of this kind
4. We make sure that all individuals under our supervision
have received clear instructions and guidelines in research
methods and in care, maintenance, and handling of animals
or specific species being used, to the extent that is
appropriate to their role.
5. We use a procedure causing pain, stress, and privation to
animals only when:
a. an alternative procedure is unavailable;
b. the goal is justified by its prospective scientific,
educational, or applied value; and,
c. we make reasonable efforts to minimize the discomfort,
infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects.
6. We perform surgical procedures with appropriate
anesthesia and we follow techniques to avoid infection and
minimize the pain during and after surgery.
7. Only when it is appropriate that an animal’s life be
terminated, then we proceed rapidly, with an effort to
minimize pain and in accordance with accepted procedures.
REPORTING RESEARCH RESULTS
1. Whenever feasible and appropriate, we consult with
groups, organizations, or communities being studied the
findings of our research so as to increase the accuracy of
interpretation and to minimize the risk of
misunderstanding, misinterpretation or misuse.
2. We are cautious when reporting results of our research
regarding vulnerable groups or communities and we ensure
that the results will not be misinterpreted or misused in the
development of social policy, attitude, and practices.
3. In research involving children, we are cautious when
discussing the results with parents, legal guardians, or
teachers and we make sure that there is no
misinterpretation or misunderstanding.
4. We do not fabricate data.
5. If we discover significant errors in our published data, we
act quickly to correct such errors in a correction, retraction,
erratum, or other appropriate publication means.
PLAGIARISM
We do not present any portions of other’s work or data as
our own, even if the source is cited occasionally.
PUBLICATION CREDIT
1. We take responsibility and credit only for work we have
actually done and credit others (including students and
research assistants) for work they have actually performed
or to which they have substantially contributed.
2. We ensure that principal authorship and co-authorship
accurately reflect the relative scientific or professional
contributions of the individuals involved, regardless of their
relative status.
3. We do not claim credit or authorship in a publication that is
substantially based on our student’s thesis or dissertation if
 we do not have substantial contributions to the research
beyond our regular duties as thesis/dissertation mentor or
advisor.
4. In a multiple-authored article that is partly and/or
substantially based on the student’s thesis or dissertation,
we shall give appropriate publication credit to the student
based on the student’s contribution relative to the other
authors.
DUPLICATE PUBLICATION OF DATA
We do not publish data that have been previously published
and claim them as original data. However, this does not
prohibit republishing of data as long as proper
acknowledgement is clearly stated.
the confidentiality and the proprietary rights of those who
submitted it.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
1. We acknowledge the limitations of our knowledge,
methods, findings, interventions, interpretations, and
conclusions.
2. In cases wherein our research touches on social policies and
structures of communities which we do not belong, we
thoroughly discuss the limits of our data with respect to
their social policy.
3. We do not conceal disconfirming evidence about our
findings and views and we acknowledge alternative
hypotheses and explanations.

SHARING RESEARCH DATA FOR VERIFICATION

1. It is our duty to share and not to withhold our data to other
competent professionals, who seek to verify and reanalyze
the research results and substantive claims of our
publication, provided that:
a. the latter obtain prior written agreement for the use of
data;
b. the latter intend to use the data solely for the purpose
declared;
c. the latter will hold responsibility for costs associated
with the release of data; and,
d. confidentiality of participants can be protected.
2. Unless legal rights concerning proprietary data preclude
such release, then the latter should seek permission from
the concerned institution, organization or agency.

REVIEWERS
When we review material submitted for presentation,
publication, grant, or research proposal review, we respect
III. ALTERNATIVES TO EXPERIMENTATION DEGREE OF IMPOSITION OF UNITS
• Refers to the extent to which researcher constrains, or limits, the
NONEXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS responses a subject may contribute to the data.
Qualitative Research, Field Studies, Archival Studies • E.g. Tracking behavior along with subjects’ normal activities (Low
imposition)
NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES • E.g. Interested only in single behavior may limit subject’s response
to specific question (High imposition)
Nonexperimental Approaches
• Used in situations in which an experiment is not practical or
desirable. QUALITATIVE RESEARCHES
Nonexperimental Designs NARRATIVE- Explore individual stories to describe the lives of
• Used to study behaviors in natural settings to explore unique or people
rare occurrences or to sample personal information GROUNDED THEORY- Explore common experiences of individuals to
Internal Validity develop a theory
• Degree to which a research design allows us to make causal ETHNOGRAPHY- Explore the shared culture of a group of people
statements PHENOMENOLOGY- Explore individual experiences to describe the
• Experimental Researches essence of a phenomenon
External Validity CASE STUDY- Explore a system of individuals to describe a case
• Generalizability or applicability to people and situations outside
the research setting OTHER NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES
• Nonexperimental Researches FIELD STUDIES
- Nonexperimental approaches used in the field or in real life
DESCRIBING RESEARCH ACTIVITIES settings.
- Participants are composed of groups 2 Types:
Degree of Manipulations of Antecedent conditions o Naturalistic Observation Studies
• Varies from low to high, from letting things happen as they will to o Participant Observation Studies
setting up carefully controlled conditions ARCHIVAL STUDY
• E.g. tracking behavior along with subject’s normal diets (low - A descriptive research method in which already existing
manipulation) records are reexamined for a new purpose
• E.g. placing subjects on fixed diets where all meals are provided
(high manipulation) SURVEYS
 It is a useful way of obtaining information about people’s
opinions, attitudes, preferences, and behaviors simply by
asking.
  It allows us to gather data about experiences, feelings,
thoughts and motives that are hard to observe directly.
KINDS:
 Form: Written Questionnaires or Face-to-Face Interviews
 Medium: Face to Face or Over the telephone
 Administration: Group or Individual, Paper and Pencil or
Computer
CONSTRUCTING SURVEYS
Map out your research - objective Be Specific
Design survey items  Closed ended?
 Open ended?
Tips
 Keep items simple
 Keep people involved
 Use language that is easy to comprehend
 Avoid double-barreled or compound questions
MEASURING RESPONSES
- Open-Ended
Content Analysis - evaluating and categorizing the content
of each answer in Open Ended Questions
- Closed-Ended
Levels of Measurement (Nominal – Ordinal - Interval -Ratio)
Selecting Levels of Measurement, Things to Consider:
1. The nature of the variable you are studying
2. How much measurement precision you desire
► E.g. Marital Status (nominal) and Years of being married
(ratio)
Important Considerations for Survey Items
1. Ask interesting questions
First questions must be:
1. Relevant to the central topic
2. Easy to answer
3. Interesting
4. Answerable by most respondents
5. Closed format
2. Place demographic questions at the end
 People will be more likely to answer demographic items if
they have already invested their time and energy in
answering the survey questions up to this point
 If knowing this information is not absolutely necessary, do
not collect it.
3. Questions should not be value laden
 Do not word your questions in ways that would make a
positive (or negative) response seem embarrassing (or
undesirable.
 Version 1: Do you believe doctors should be allowed to kill
unborn babies during the first trimester of pregnancy?
 Version 2: Do you believe doctors should be allowed to
terminate a pregnancy during the first trimester?
RESPONSE STYLES
Response Styles are tendencies to respond to questions or
test items in specific ways, regardless of the content
 Willingness to Answer
• Comes into play whenever questions require specific
knowledge about facts or issues.
• Guess, no right or wrong answer
 Position Preference
 • If your questions are multiple-choice, response styles can ► Representativeness: how closely the sample mirrors the large
influence the selection of answers. population
• If in doubt, choose a
 Yea-Saying/ Nay-Saying PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• Yea-sayers agree with a question regardless of its manifest  Simple Random Sampling
content  Systematic Random Sampling
• Nay-sayers tend to disagree no matter what they are  Stratified Random Sampling
asked  Cluster Sampling

HOW TO SOLVE THIS? NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING

►Design questions that force the subject to think more about the  Quota Sampling
answer.  Convenience Sampling
►Once the questions have been designed, they need to be  Purposive Sampling
pretested before actual data collection can begin.  Snowball Sampling

COLLECTING SURVEY DATA CORRELATIONAL AND QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 Self-Administered Questionnaires Other nonexperimental designs
 Mail Surveys
 Computer and Internet Surveys Correlation
 Telephone Surveys ► is one that is designed to determine the correlation, or degree of
 Interviews relationship, between two traits, behaviors, or events.
 Focus Groups ► In the correlational study, the researcher measures events
WITHOUT ATTEMPTING TO ALTER the antecedent conditions in any
EVALUATING SURVEYS AND SURVEY DATA way; the researcher is simply how well the measures go together.
The “goodness” of the survey itself is typically evaluated into two ► 2 Things to consider:
areas RELIABILITY and Validity 1. Direction of Relationship (positive or negative)
2. Magnitude of Relationship (no correlation, weak,
SAMPLING moderate, strong)
► Deciding who the subjects will be and then selecting them
► Population: consists of all people, animals, or objects that have ► Scatterplots
at least one characteristics in common - visual representations of the scores belonging to each
► Sample of Subjects: a group that is a subset of the people of subject in the study.
interest ► Regression lines or lines of best fit:
- lined drawn on the scatterplots.
 - Multiple Correlation
o tests the relationship of several predictor variables.
- Multiple Regression Analysis
o uses regression equation to predict scores on one
variable from scores on sets of other variables.

CAUSAL MODELING
- Correlation does not imply causation. Why? because the PATH ANALYSIS ► uses beta weights from multiple regression
causal direction between two variables cannot be analysis to generate possible direction of cause and effect from
determined by simple correlations. correlated variables
o Bidirectional causation: Variable #2 may affect
variable #1 or the other way around BUT NOT A
CAUSE
o Third variable problem: some third agent are
causing two behaviors to appear to be related.

- Coefficient of determination (r 2 ):
o estimates the amount of variability in scores on one
variable that can be explained by the other variable
– an estimate of the strength of the relationship
between them. CROSS-LEGGED PANEL DESIGN ► measures the same pair of
REGRESSION variables at two different points in time; look at patterns of
- Linear Regression Analysis correlations across time for possible direction of cause and effect.
o uses regression equation to predict scores on one
variable from scores on a second correlated
variable.
- The stronger the correlation, the better the prediction, in
general.
- Linear Regression Analysis
o uses regression equation to predict scores on one
variable from scores on a second correlated
variable.
- The stronger the correlation, the better the prediction, in
general.
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Seems like a real experiment, but they lack one or more of its
essential elements, such as manipulation of antecedents or random
assignment to treatment conditions.
► EX POST FACTO STUDIES - explores characteristics, behaviors, or
effects of naturally occurring events in preexisting groups of
subjects
► NONEQUIVALENT GROUPS: compares the effects of different
treatment conditions on preexisting groups of subjects (e.g. workers
from different companies)
► LONGITUDINAL DESIGN: investigate changes across time by
measuring behavior of same group of subjects at different points in
time.
VI. DEFINING AND MEASURING VARIABLES
1. An overview of measurement
 two aspects of measurement are particularly important in
planning a research study or reading a research report:
o often there is not a one-to-one relationship
between the variable measured and the
measurement obtained (knowledge, performance
and exam grade)
o there are usually several different options for
measuring any particular variable (types of exams
and questions on exams)
o Direct measurement (height, weight) vs indirect
measurement (motivation, knowledge, memory,
marital satisfaction)
2. Constructs and operational definitions
• Theories summarize our observations, explain
mechanisms underlying a particular behavior and make
predictions about the behavior.
• many research variables, particularly variables of interest
to behavioral scientists, are hypothetical attributes or
mechanisms explaining and predicting some behavior in a
theory are called constructs
external stimulus 🕭 construct 🕭 behavior factor
reward 🕭 motivation 🕭 performance
 constructs can not be directly observed or measured
 however, researchers can measure external, observable
events as an indirect method of measuring the construct
itself
 operational definition
 o is a procedure for measuring and defining a
construct, indirect method of measuring something
that can not be measured directly
o an operational definition specifies a measurement
procedure for measuring an external, observable
behavior and uses the resulting measurements as a
definition and a measurement of the hypothetical
construct
o e.g. IQ test is an operational definition for the
construct intelligence
o 🕭 - provide and example of a theoretical construct
and its operational definition
o You don’t always have to come up with your own
operational definition of the construct, you can use
some conventional measurement procedure from
previous studies
3. Validity and reliability of measurement
 How do you decide which method of measurement
(operational definition of a construct) is the best?
 there are two general criteria for evaluating the quality of
any measurement procedure
o validity
o reliability
VALIDITY OF MEASUREMENT
 concerns the “truth” of the measurement
 it is the degree to which the measurement process
measures the variable it claims to measure
 Is the IQ score truly measuring intelligence? What about
size of the brain and bumps on the skull?
Different kinds of validity
 face validity
o the simplest and least scientific definition of validity
o it is demonstrated when a measure superficially
appears to measure what it claims to measure
o Based on subjective judgment and difficult to
quantify
o e.g. intelligence and reasoning questions on the IQ
test
o Problem - participants can use the face validity to
change their answers
 concurrent validity (criterion validity)
o is demonstrated when scores obtained from a new
measure are directly related to scores obtained
from a more established measure of the same
variable
o e.g. new IQ test correlates with an older IQ test
 predictive validity
o when scores obtained from a measure accurately
predict behavior according to a theory
o e.g. high scores on need for achievement test
predict competitive behavior in children (ring toss
game)
 construct validity
o is demonstrated when scores obtained from a
measure are directly related to the variable itself
o Reflects how close the measure relates to the
construct (height and weight example)
o in one sense, construct validity is achieved by
repeatedly demonstrating every other type of
validity
 convergent validity
 ois demonstrated by a strong relationship between
the scores obtained from two different methods of
measuring the same construct
o e.g. an experimenter observing aggressive behavior
in children correlated with teacher’s ratings of their
behavior
 divergent validity
o is demonstrated by using two different methods to
measure two different constructs
o convergent validity must be shown for each of the
two constructs and little or no relationship exists
between the scores obtained from the two different
constructs when they are measured by the same
method
o e.g. aggressive behavior and general activity level in
children
CONVERGENT VALIDITY, DIVERGENT VALIDITY AND CONSTRUCT
VALIDITY
By demonstrating strong convergent validity for two different
constructs and then showing divergent validity between the two
constructs, you obtain strong construct validity of the two
constructs
RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT
•Reliability of measurement
- a measurement procedure is said to be reliable if repeated
measurements of the same individual under the same
conditions produce identical (or nearly identical) values
- reliability is the stability or the consistency of measurement
o measured score = true score + error
o IQ score = true IQ score + mood, fatigue etc
RELIABILITY AND ERROR OF MEASUREMENT
 Inconsistency (lack of reliability) of measurement comes
from error
 The higher the error the more unreliable the measurement
 Sources of error
o observer error
 the individual who makes the
measurements can introduce simple human
error into the measurement process
o environmental changes
 small changes in the environment from one
measurement to another (e.g. time of the
day, distraction in the room, lighting)
o participant changes
 participants change between
measurements (mood, hunger, motivation)
TYPES AND MEASURES OF RELIABILITY
 successive measurements
o Obtaining scores from two successive
measurements and calculating a correlation
between them
o the same group, the same measurement at two
different times
o test-retest reliability
  simultaneous measurements
o obtained by direct observation of behaviors (two or
more separate observers at the same time),
consistency across raters
o inter-rater reliability
 internal consistency
o degree of consistency of scores from separate items
on a test or questionnaire consisting of multiple
items
o you want all the items or groups of items tapping
the same processes
o researchers commonly split the set of items in half,
compute a separate score of each half, and then
evaluate the degree of agreement between the two
scores
o split-half reliability
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
 they are partially related and partially independent
 reliability is a prerequisite for validity (measurement
procedure cannot be valid unless it is reliable – e.g. IQ, huge
variance of repeated measurements is impossible if we are
truly measuring intelligence)
 it is not necessary for a measurement to be valid for it to be
reliable (e.g. height as a measure of intelligence)
4. SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
 Scales define the type categories we use in measurement
and the selection of a scale has direct impact on our ability
to describe relationships between variables
 the nominal scale
o simply represents qualitative difference in the
variable measured
o can only tell us that a difference exists without the
possibility telling the direction or magnitude of the
difference
o e.g. majors in college, race, gender, occupation
 the ordinal scale
o the categories that make up an ordinal scale form
an ordered sequence
o can tell us the direction of the difference but not
the magnitude
o e.g. coffee cup sizes, socioeconomic class, T-shirt
sizes, food preferences
 the interval scale
o categories on an interval scale are organized
sequentially, and all categories are the same size
o we can determine the direction and the magnitude
of a difference
o May have an arbitrary zero (convenient point of
reference)
o e.g. temperature in Farenheit, time in seconds
 the ratio scale
o consists of equal, ordered categories anchored by a
zero point that is not arbitrary but meaningful
(representing absence of a variable)
o allows us to determine the direction, the
magnitude, and the ratio of the difference
o e.g. reaction time, number of errors on a test
5. MODALITIES OF MEASUREMENT
 One can measure a construct by selecting a measure from
three main categories
 There are three basic modalities of measurement:
o self-report
o physiological measurement
o behavioral measurement
  behavioral observation
 content analysis and archival research
SELF-REPORT MEASURES
 you ask a participant to describe his behavior, to express his
opinion or characterize his experience in an interview or by
using a questionnaire with ratings
o Positive aspects
 Only the individual has direct access to
information about his state of mind
 More direct measure
o Negative aspects
 Participants may distort the responses to
create a better self-image or to please the
experimenter
 The response can also be influenced by
wording of the questions and other aspects
of the situation
PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES
 Physiological manifestations of the underlying construct
 e.g. EEG, EKG, galvanic skin response, perspiration, PET,
fMRI
o advantages
 provides accurate, reliable, and well-
defined measurements that are not
dependent on subjective interpretation
o disadvantages
 equipment is usually expensive or
unavailable
 Presence of monitoring devices may create
unnatural situation
 question: Are these procedures a valid
measure of the construct (e.g. increase in
heart rate to fear, arousal)
BEHAVIORAL MEASURES
 behaviors that can be observed and measured (e.g. reaction
time, reading speed, focus of attention, disruptive behavior,
number of words recalled on a memory test)
 How to select the right behavioral measure?
o Depends on the purpose of the study
 In clinical setting the same disorder can
reveal itself through different symptoms
 In studying memory we want to have the
same measure for all subjects to be able to
compare them
 Beware of situational changes in behavior (e.g. disruptive
behavior in school vs when observed) and different
behavioral indicators of a construct
6. OTHER ASPECTS OF MEASUREMENT
 multiple measures
o sometimes you can use two (or more) different
procedures to measure the same variable (e.g.
heart rate and questionnaire as a measure of fear)
o problems (the two variables may not behave in the
same way)
 e.g. a specific therapy for treating fear may
have large effect on behavior but no effect
on heart rate
 the lack of agreement between two measures is called
desynchrony
o One measure can be more sensitive than other
o Different measures may indicate different
dimensions of the variable and change at different
times during the treatment
SENSITIVITY AND RANGE EFFECTS
 are the measures sensitive enough to respond to the type
and magnitude of the changes that are expected? (e.g.
seconds vs. milliseconds, difficult or easy exams)
 range effects
o a ceiling effect (the clustering of scores at the high
end of a measurement scale, allowing little or no
possibility of increases in value, e.g. test that is too
easy)
o a floor effect (the clustering of scores at the low end
of a measurement scale, allowing little or no
possibility of decreases in value, e.g. test that is too
difficult)
o Range effects are usually a consequence of using a
measure that is inappropriate for a particular group
(e.g. 4-grade test for college students)
o a research study is double blind if both the
researcher and the participants are unaware of the
predicted outcome
PARTICIPANT REACTIVITY AND EXPERIMENTER BIAS
 to avoid participant reactivity and experimenter bias we use
‘blind’ experiments
o a research study is single blind if the researcher
does not know the predicted outcome
o a research study is double blind if both the
researcher and the participants are unaware of the
predicted outcome

PARTICIPANT REACTIVITY AND EXPERIMENTER BIAS

 participant reactivity is the way how participant reacts to
the experimental situation (e.g. overly cooperative, overly
defensive, or hostile)
o To avoid these problems one can try to disguise the
true purpose of the experiment or observe
individuals without their awareness (beware ethical
issues)
 experimenter bias is the way experimenter influences
results (e.g. by being warm and friendly with one group of
participants vs. cold and stern with other group)
 to avoid participant reactivity and experimenter bias we
use:
o standardized procedures (e.g. instructions recorded
on a tape)
o a research study is single blind if the researcher
does not know the predicted outcome

V. SELECTING RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
1. Introduction (populations and samples)
 research attempts to answer a general question about a
large group of individuals, as opposed to a specific question
about a few, unique individuals
 therefore, researchers typically want to generalize or
extend their results beyond the individuals who participate
in a study
 population
o is the entire set of individuals of interest to a
researcher
o although the entire population usually does not
participate in a research study, the results from the
study are generalized to the entire population
 sample
o a set of individuals selected from a population and
usually is intended to represent the population in a
research study
 target population
o the entire set of individuals who have the
characteristics required by the researcher
o e.g. the whole population of people with eating
disorders in the world or the US
 accessible population
o a subset of the target population, consisting of
those individuals who are accessible to be recruited
as participants in the study
o e.g. people with eating disorders in local clinics
 the sample
o a subset of the accessible population, consisting of
those individuals who are selected to participate in
the research study
o 10% of the people with eating disorders in local
clinics
 representative samples
o representativeness of a sample
 refers to the extent to which the
characteristics of the sample accurately
reflect the characteristics of the population
o a representative sample
 is a sample with the same characteristics as
the population
o a biased sample
 is a sample with different characteristics
from those of the population
o selection bias
 occurs when participants or subjects are
selected in a manner that increases the
probability of obtaining a biased sample
 e.g. a sample from the people in a
university parking lot is not representative
of the adult population
 Sampling basics
o sampling
 is the process of selecting individuals for a
study
o probability sampling
 the entire population is known, each
individual in the population has a
specifiable probability selection and
sampling is a random process
o nonprobability sampling
 the population is not completely known,
individual probabilities cannot be known
 we try to avoid bias and maintain
representativeness
2. PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS
 Simple random sampling
o each individual in the population has an equal and
independent chance of being selected
o no individuals are more likely to be chosen than
another
o The process of simple random sampling consists of
the following steps
 clearly define the population from which
you want to select a sample
 list all the members of the population
 using a random process, select individuals
from the list
 e.g. children in a class
 Systematic sampling
o sample is obtained by selecting every n-th
participant for a list containing the total population,
after a random start
o after selecting the first individual it is not random
o e.g. every 5th child in a class
 Stratified random sampling
o used when the focus of a research study is on
specific subgroups within a population
o Steps in the process
 identify the specific subgroups (or strata) to
be included in the sample
 we select equal random samples from each
of the pre-identified subgroups
 we combine the subgroup samples into one
overall sample
 e.g. selecting 25 men and 25
women from an INDV class
 Proportionate stratified random sampling
o used if researchers try to improve the
correspondence between a sample and a
population by deliberately structuring the sample so
that its composition matches the composition of a
population
o e.g. if there are 750 men and 250 women in the
INDV population the sample of 100 participants
would contain 75 men and 25 women
 Cluster sampling
o is used when there are well-defined clusters
(groups) within the population
o e.g. selecting students from 10 classes instead of
selecting 300 students one at a time
3. NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS
 Convenience sampling
 the most commonly used sampling method in psychological
research
  researchers simply use as participants those individuals who
are easy to get (e.g. INDV students or volunteers)
 two strategies to help correct most of the serious problems
associated with convenience sampling
o researchers try to ensure that their samples are
reasonably representative and not strongly biased
o researchers provide a clear description of how the
sample was obtained who the participants are in
their research studies
 Quota sampling
 researcher first identifies specific subgroups to be included
in the sample and then establishes quotas for individuals to
be selected from each subgroup
 e.g. 30-preschool children, parents respond
to an ad, you don’t take the first 30 but
impose a quota of 15 girls and 15 boys
STEP 4 OF YOUR RESEARCH OUTLINE
 Step 4: Identify the participants or subjects
o 12 female subjects (20-25 years of age) and 12 male
subjects (19-25 years of age) would participate in
this study. They would receive a course credit for
their participation in the study. Before the study, an
informed consent would be obtained from all
participants.
VI.THE BASICS OF EXPERIMENT
Chapter Objectives
1. Learn the two types of variables that are the focus of an
experiment
2. Understand how variables are defined in an experiment
3. Understand the importance of reliability and validity
4. Learn about the problems caused by extraneous variables
and confounding
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES
 INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
o The dimension that the experimenter intentionally
manipulates; it is the antecedent the experimenter
chooses to vary.
o IV should not be affected by anything else that
happens in the environment.
o IV are sometimes aspects of the physical
environment that be brought under the
experimenter’s direct control.
 E.g
 Lighting (bright or dim)
 Noise levels (loud or soft)
 Difficulty (easy or hard)
 Meaningfulness (nonsense syllables versus real words)
o Sometimes, experimenter’s manipulate
experimental conditions so that subjects experience
different psychological states : anxious vs. non-
anxious, happy vs. sad.
o IMPORTANT! To meet the definition of an
experiment, at least two different treatment
conditions are required; thus, an IV must be given
at least two possible values in every experiment.
 o IMPORTANT! It is common for researchers to refer ✔ includes all steps that were followed to set up each value
to these quasi-experimental variables as of the independent variable.
independent variables too. BEWARE OF
SYSTEMATIC DIFFERENCES. 2. Measured Operational Definitions
✔ Describe exactly what procedures we follow to assess the
 DEPENDENT VARIABLE impact of different treatment conditions.
o The particular behavior we expect to change ✔ Contains exact descriptions of the specific behaviors or
because of our experimental treatment. responses recorded
✔ Explain how those responses are scored
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
 Treatments
 Manipulations INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
 Interventions  Differing values of the IV are called “levels”
 Conditions  May vary quantitatively
o 10 mg day
DEPENDENT VARIABLE o 20 mg day
 Measures e.g. here are 2 levels of variable dosage
 Effects  May vary qualitatively
 Outcomes o Zoloft
 Results o Imipramine
o Prozac
e.g. here are 3 levels of the variable medication type
 SCHACHTER If people are anxious, then they will want to
affiliate or be with others.
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
 HESS, 1975 Large pupils make people more attractive.  An operational definition is a clearly defined set of
procedures for measuring or manipulating the construct of
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS interest.
2 Kinds:  The key to an acceptable operational definition is that the
1. Experimental Operational Definitions procedure is specified precisely enough to allow replication
✔ explain the precise meaning of the independent by others.
variables; o Examples:
✔ these definitions describe exactly what was done to  quality of memory -- accuracy of recall in a
create the various treatment conditions of the experiment. certain task depression -- Beck
 Depression Inventory (survey) score
 arousal -- galvanic skin response (conductivity of
the surface of the skin)