LESSON 1: MEANING, NATURE,
AND SCOPE OF DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITIONS OF DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
 Developmental Psychology, often
known as Human Development or
Lifespan Development, is the
scientific study of how humans
develop and remain the same from
conception to death.
 According to Hurlock,
developmental psychology is the
branch of psychology that studies
intraindividual changes and
interindividual changes within
these intraindividual changes.
TWO FORMS OF CHANGES
1. Qualitative – intelligence, speech,
ad change in attitudes.
2. Quantitative – it involves number,
like weight, height, and age.
DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY
DEALS WITH GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
1. Growth – it is quantitative, with
measurement. It is increase in the
size of human like weight.
2. Development – it is quantitative.
There is no measurement. It is the
abilities such as walking, talking,
speaking, and learning.
NATURE VS. NURTURE
1. Nature - development is the result
of heredity or genetic endowment.
2. Nurture - development is the result
of environmental influence.
WHAT CAUSES US TO DEVELOP?
1. Maturation refers to an
individual's biological unfolding
following some readily observable
areas of physical development
species-specific biological heredity
as well as an individual's biological
inheritance.
2. Learning—the process by which
our experiences cause relatively
permanent changes in our feelings,
ideas, and behaviors—is the second
fundamental developmental
process. Consider the following
scenario.
THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
FEATURES
 There are four (4) features of human
development.
1. Physical development that
covers changes in the body
structure and motor skills.
2. Perceptual development that
refers to the development of
sensory capacities such as the
changes witnessed in the seeing
and hearing abilities to grow
infants.
3. Cognitive or Intellectual
development that refers to
changes in mental abilities,
learning capacity, memory,
reasoning, thought processes,
and language all fall under this
feature of development.
4. Personality and Social
development this feature
covers changes in self-concept,
gender identity, and one’s
quality of interpersonal
relationships.
These four features are interdependent and AGE CONCEPTIONS
interactive. They cannot operate
independently of one another. 1. Chronological Age: This is
determined by the number of years
 Development is multifaceted. since your birth.
Humans evolve in a variety of ways. 2. Biological Age: the rate at which
We may see advancements in certain the body ages.
areas of growth while losing ground in 3. Psychological Age: Our
others. psychologically adapted capacity in
comparison to others our age.
 Development is multidimensional.
4. Social Age: determined by our
We evolve in three broad
culture's social norms and
domains/dimensions: physical,
expectations for people our age
cognitive, and psychosocial. group.
 Development is an interdisciplinary
endeavor. As stated at the beginning of
the chapter, human development is
such a broad issue that it necessitates
the theories, research methods, and
knowledge base of numerous academic
disciplines.
 Plasticity characterizes development.
Plasticity refers to our ability to adapt
and the fact that many of our qualities
are changeable.
 Development occurs in multiple
contexts. Development occurs in a
variety of circumstances. Baltes (1987)
distinguished three distinct contextual
impacts.Normative age-graded
influences: An age-grade is a specific
RESEARCH METHODS AND ETHICAL
age group, such as toddler, adolescent,
CONSIDERATIONS
or senior.
 Normative history-graded Research Methods in Child and Adolescent
influences: Your experiences are Development
shaped by the historical period in
which you are born. 1. Scientific Method - Modern
 Non-normative life influences: developmental psychology is a
Despite our shared age and history, scientific enterprise, using
objective methods to gather data
each of us has unique experiences that
and test theories or hypotheses. It
may alter our development.
emphasizes objectivity and
SES (SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS) allowing data to determine thinking
merits.
 is a method of identifying families and
 Theory - a set of concepts
households based on common levels of
and propositions designed
education, income, and occupation.
to organize, describe, and
 explain an existing set of
observations.
 Hypothesis - a theoretical
prediction about some
aspect of experience
2. Gathering Data - Researchers
must find ways to measure various
aspects of development, such as
infant perceptual capabilities,
friendship growth, and drug use.
Scientifically useful measures must
have reliability and validity to test
hypotheses.
 Reliability - the extent to
which a measuring
instrument yields consistent
results, both over time and
across observers.
 Validity - the extent to
which a measuring
instrument accurately
reflects what the
researchers intended to
measure.
SELF REPORT METHODOLOGIES
1. Interviews and Questionnaires.
Researchers use interviews and
questionnaires to gather data on a
child's development, behavior,
feelings, beliefs, and thinking
methods. Questionnaires involve
writing questions, while interviews
require oral responses. Structured
interviews and questionnaires aim
to treat participants alike, allowing
for comparisons between
participants.
2. The Clinical Method. The clinical
method is a flexible approach to
research, testing a hypothesis by
presenting a task and inviting a
response.
3. Observational Methodologies.
Researchers often prefer
naturalistic observation, observing
people's behavior in their natural
surroundings. This method
involves recording actions in
homes, schools, parks, and
playgrounds, focusing on specific
behaviors like cooperation or
aggression. Naturalistic
observation is easy to apply to
infants and toddlers, and it
illustrates how people behave in
everyday life.
4. Case Studies. The case study
method utilizes various methods,
including structured interviews,
questionnaires, clinical methods,
and behavioral observations, to
create a detailed portrait of an
individual's development.
5. Ethnography. It is a popular
method for researchers studying the
impact of culture on children and
adolescents. It involves participant
observation, naturalistic
observations, conversations, and
interpretations. The data helps
compile a detailed portrait of the
cultural community, revealing how
values and traditions influence
children's development.
6. Psychophysiological Methods.
Developmentalists utilize
psychophysiological methods to
understand children's perceptual,
cognitive, and emotional responses,
particularly for infants and toddlers
who cannot report experiences.
BASIC RESEARCH DESIGNS IN
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
1. The Correlational Design. A
correlational design involves
investigators gathering information
to determine meaningful
relationships between two or more
variables.
2. The Experimental Design.
Experimental designs allow for a
precise assessment of the cause-
and-effect relationship between
two variables.
3. The Field Experiment. To
confirm laboratory experiment
conclusions, conduct a field
experiment in a natural setting,
combining naturalistic observation
with rigorous control. Participants
are typically unapprehensive about
participating in a "strange"
experiment, as their everyday
activities are not involved in the
experiment.
4. The Natural (or Quasi-)
Experiment. Experimental designs
may not be suitable for ethical
reasons, such as studying the
effects of social deprivation in
infancy on children's intellectual
development.
5. The Cross-Cultural Design.
Scientists often delay publishing
new findings until they have
studied enough people to ensure
reliability. These conclusions are
often based on participants from
one culture or subculture, making it
difficult to generalize them to
future generations or children
growing up in different societies.
RESEARCH STRATEGIES AND
STUDYING DEVELOPMENT
1. The Cross-Sectional Design.
Cross-sectional research studies
individuals of different ages from
different cohorts, comparing them
to identify age-related changes in
development.
2. Cohort Effects. Cross-sectional
research involves participants from
different cohorts, posing
interpretive problems. Age
differences may reflect cultural or
historical factors, confounding age
and cohort effects.
3. The Longitudinal Design. A
longitudinal design involves
repeatedly observing participants
over a period of time, ranging from
6 months to a lifetime. This allows
researchers to assess the stability of
attributes, identify normative
developmental trends, and
understand individual differences
in development by identifying
commonalities and experiences.
4. The Sequential Design. Sequential
designs combine cross-sectional
and longitudinal studies by
selecting different ages and
following cohorts over time.
5. The Microgenetic Design. Cross-
sectional, longitudinal, and
sequential designs outline
developmental changes without
specifying their cause;
microgenetic designs focus on
processes promoting cognitive
development in children.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH
 Researchers face ethical issues in
conducting research with humans,
ensuring participants are protected
from physical or psychological harm.
While some issues can be resolved by
avoiding experiments causing harm,
developmentalists may face more
subtle dilemmas throughout their
careers.
 LESSON 2: THEORIES OF HUMAN PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENTAL
DEVELOPMENT STAGES BY SIGMUND FREUD

One source of information about human  Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was an

development is through theory. A theory is influential theorist in Western
to explain prediction or control a set of philosophy. He challenged commonly
phenomena. held beliefs about human nature by
arguing that we are motivated by
THE QUALITIES OF A GOOD THEORY motives and conflicts that we are
generally ignorant of, and that our
1. Parsimony - a criterion for
personalities are moulded by our early
assessing the scientific validity of
childhood experiences.
hypotheses; a parsimonious theory
 One of the most controversial
is one that employs a small number
contributions Freud made to
of explanatory principles to explain
psychology is his theory of personality
a large number of observations.
development.
2. Falsifiability - A criterion used to
 Freud believed that “The child is the
assess the scientific validity of
father of man” which means that our
theories. A theory is falsifiable
personality was due to our childhood
when it can generate predictions
experiences.
that can be disproven.
3. Heuristic - A criterion used to Three Levels of Mind
assess the scientific validity of
theories. A heuristic theory is one 1. Anything that could potentially be
that stimulates new research and brought into the conscious mind is
discoveries. included in the preconscious.
2. The conscious mind encompasses all
Theories Definitions of our ideas, memories, feelings, and
desires at any given time. This is the
Children were seen as small adults well into
element of our brain functioning that
the 18th century. The prevailing early thought
was preformationism, or the belief that a tiny, we can reasonably think about and
Preformationist View
completely formed human is placed in the discuss. This includes our memories,
sperm or egg at conception and subsequently which is not always conscious but can
increases in size until birth.
be easily retrieved and brought into
Locke advocated viewing a child's mind as a
awareness.
tabula rasa, or blank slate, and that whatever 3. The unconscious mind is a repository
enters the child's mind originates from his or of sensations, thoughts, urges, and
her environment. Locke highlighted that the memories that are not conscious to us.
environment is more influential in a child's
John Locke (1632-1704) early childhood since the mind is most
The unconscious contains
malleable at that age. According to Locke, the inappropriate or unpleasant elements,
environment exerts its influence through such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or
linkages between thoughts and feelings, conflict.
behavioral repetition, imitation, and
incentives and punishments (Crain, 2005).
Rousseau, like Locke, believed that children
were more than just miniature adults. He did
not believe in teaching children the correct
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1178)
way to think, but rather in allowing them to
think for themselves in accordance with their
own ways and an inner, biological timeline.
Three Components of Personality  Freud had a predisposition to read
most psychological processes via the
1. The pleasure principle drives the id, lens of sexuality. As a result, his
which seeks instant gratification of all explanation of early personality
desires, wants, and needs.1 If these formation was heavily focused on
demands are not met quickly, the sexual themes; as a result, each of us
result is uneasiness or tension. An goes through a series of developmental
increase in hunger or thirst, for phases during childhood.
example, should prompt an immediate
attempt to eat or drink.
2. The ego functions on the reality
principle, attempting to satisfy the id's
goals in realistic and socially
acceptable ways. Before acting on or
abandoning impulses, the reality
principle considers the costs and
benefits of the activity.
3. The superego is the repository for the
internalized moral standards and
ideals that we pick up from our
parents and society. The superego has
two parts:
- The conscience contains
knowledge about things that
parents and society consider to
be wrong. These actions are
frequently prohibited and PSYCHO-SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTAL
result in negative STAGES BY HAMBURGER “ERIK”
repercussions, sanctions, or ERIKSON
emotions of guilt and sorrow.
- The rules and criteria for  Erikson presented each of eight
behaviors that the ego strives psychosocial stages as a polarity, with
to are included in the ego ideal. a positive pole representing successful
development at that stage and a
negative pole representing
unsuccessful development.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 1 year) -

When a child's physical and emotional
requirements are addressed, he learns
to trust his surroundings. Otherwise, he
will become scared and distrustful of
the people and things around him.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2
to 3 years) - If parents encourage their
children to accomplish things for
themselves, the youngster will develop
autonomy or independence. However,
if parents are overly watchful or show
 displeasure when their child does
things on her own, she will become
self-conscious and ashamed.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (4 to 5 years) - If
the child's inquisitiveness and
exploration are encouraged by his
parents, he will find it easier to use his
initiative to go out on his own. But if
parents inhibit such actions, the child
will develop guilt feelings whenever he
tries to be independent.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to
puberty) - If supported, the youngster
will acquire a feeling of industry, like
problem solving and task completion,
and seek intellectual stimulation. She
will develop a sense of inferiority if
she does not.
5. Identity vs. Identity Confusion
(Adolescence) - This stage has
something to do with achieving sense
of identity or knowing ones’ role,
preferences or likes and dislikes.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early
Adulthood) - If the adult has
developed a feeling of identity, she can
build intimate or close relationships,
however if he does not develop a sense
of identity, he may develop a sense of
isolation.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle
age) - Generativity is the ability to
guide or aid the following generation,
whilst stagnation is the opposite.
People that are generative are both
productive and happy.
8. Integrity vs. Despair (Old
age) - If an elderly person believes
that her life has been filled of
disappointments and failures, she
will develop a sense of
hopelessness.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL
STAGES BY JEAN PIAGET
 The cognitive-developmental stages
are formulated by Jean Piaget, a Swiss
psychologist who is the most
influential theorist in the history of
Developmental Psychology and the
study of human intelligence.
 According to him, a person’s cognitive
abilities- ways of perceiving and
thinking- progress through four
qualitatively different stages.
1. Sensorimotor Period (birth-2
years) - This period is
characterized by the
coordination of sensory input
or information and physical
action. By the end of the first
year, the child develops object
permanence or the idea or
notion that the object is still
existing even it is out of sight.
2. Pre-operational period (from
2 to 7 years) - It is the time of
pre-logical and representational
thought. The child's thinking is
no longer bound up with
exterior behaviors and has
become internalized. Imitation,
symbolic play, mental imagery,
and language are forms of
internal representation that
emerge concurrently at the start
of this stage. During this time,
there is also an incapacity to
consider other points of view
(egocentrism).
3. Concrete Operational (7-11
years) - The logical thought
 phase in number, class, and
order. During this time, the
infant learns about
conservation, which is the
notion that changes in the
exterior appearance of objects
have no influence on their
quantity. Mathematical
operations are also taught.
Based on vivid images of
earlier experiences, the
youngster gradually has the
ability to think of physically
absent items.
4. Formal Operational (11
onwards) - The epoch of limitless
logical reasoning. This time period
is distinguished by the ability to
think beyond concrete reality. He
or she is now aware of mental
processes, comprehending and
appreciating algebraic symbolic
abstractions, literary criticism, and
the use of metaphor in literature.
 Schema - Understanding and
knowing necessitate both mental
and physical actions, as defined by
a schema. Schemas are knowledge
categories that help us interpret and
grasp the world around us.
According to Piaget, a schema
includes both a type of information
and the process of learning that
knowledge. When new experiences
occur, this new information is used
to edit, add to, or update previously
existing schemas.
 Assimilation - is the process of
assimilating new data into our
existing schemas. The process is
partly subjective since we want to
alter experiences and facts to fit
our preexisting beliefs. In the
situation above, seeing a dog and
labeling it "dog" is an example of
incorporating the animal into the
child's canine schema.
 Accommodation - Another facet
of adaptation is accommodation,
which involves adjusting or
changing our existing schemas in
light of new information.
Accommodation requires
modifying existing schemas or
conceptions as a result of new
information or new experiences.
New schemas may be established
throughout this procedure.
 Equilibration - According to
Piaget, all individuals strive to
achieve a balance between
assimilation and accommodation
via a mechanism he calls
equilibration. It is vital to achieve
a balance between using existing
knowledge (assimilation) and
changing behavior to account for
new knowledge as children
progress through the phases of
cognitive development
(accommodation). Equilibration
describes how youngsters grow
from one mental stage to the next.
SOCIOCULTURAL IMPACTS: LEV
VYGOTSKY'S POINT OF VIEW
 Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a
Russian psychologist who wrote in the
early 1900s but whose work was not
discovered by American academics
until the 1960s and only became
generally known in the 1980s (Crain,
2005). His sociocultural approach
emphasizes the role of culture and
contact in cognitive development.
 Vygotsky differed from Piaget in that
he felt that a person possesses not just
a set of abilities, but also a set of
potential abilities that can be achieved
with the right guidance from others.
 Vygotsky established teaching theories
that are still used by educators today.
PROCESSING OF INFORMATION
 Based on the theories and research of
cognitive scientists interested in how
humans perceive, interpret, manipulate,
use, and remember information. This
theory holds that humans gradually
improve their processing capacities,
meaning that cognitive development is
continuous rather than staged. Adults'
more complex mental abilities are built
on children's basic abilities. We are
born with the ability to sense stimuli,
retain and retrieve information. As our
brains mature, so does our information
processing system. Simultaneously,
interactions with the environment
assist us in developing more effective
information-processing skills.
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY
 Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)
created the Ecological Systems
Theory, which provides a framework
for understanding and researching the
various impacts on human
development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
Bronfenbrenner observed that bigger
societal forces influence human
interaction and that knowing these
influences is vital for understanding
an individual.
1. Pre-conventional morality (Level 1) -
In this level or stage, children at the
age of nine or older don’t have
standard or personal code of morality.
Pre-conventional morality is
composed of two stages.
 Stage 1- Obedience and
Punishment Orientation -
In this stage, the
child/individual do good
behavior in order to avoid
punishment. Punishment is
imposed when the
individual or child has
done wrong.
 Stage 2 - Individualism
and Exchange -
Individuals during this
stage has different
perspective about how
morality is taught by the
authorities.
2. Conventional Morality (Level 2) - At
this stage, adolescents and adults starts
to internalize the adult roles models of
standard morality. The authority set
standards is not questioned, but
internalized.
 Stage 3 - Good
Interpersonal
Relationship - Individuals
during this stage usually
seek for others approval.
To achieve belongingness,
they assume behavior that
is good in forming
relationships.
 Stage 4- Maintaining the
Social Order - As people
becomes more aware of the
social rules, they tend to
obey rules or laws set by
the society to avoid guilt
and judgment.
3. Post-conventional morality (Level 3)
- During this stage, individuals begin
to set personal standards or principles
of judgment. Moral reasoning is also
based on their own standard view of
right and justice. This is the highest
level of morality according to
Kohlberg.
 Stage 5 - Social Contract
and Individual Rights -
The child/individual
becomes aware that while
rules/laws might exist for
the good of thegreatest
number, there are times
when they will work
against the interest of
particular individuals.
  Stage 6 - Universal
Principles - In this stage,
people assume their
freedom to develop their
own set of moral and
ethical principles, which
sometimes may or may not
fit the law of the society.
their circumstances but actively shape
and are shaped by their surroundings.
The example of parent-child
interactions illustrates this
bidirectional influence, where both
parties impact each other's behaviors
and expectations. In summary,
Bandura's work underscores the
dynamic interplay between individuals
and their environment, emphasizing
observational learning and reciprocal
determinism.

THEORY OF LEARNING

 The conditioning theory of learning

asserts that learning is a result of
associating a stimulus with a specific
response. Human behavior, shaped by
habits developed through life
experiences, is explained by the
principles of conditioning theory.
BEHAVIORISM
1. Classical Conditioning Theory
 B.F. Skinner, a prominent behaviorist, - Classical conditioning theory,
is highlighted for extending pioneered by Ivan Pavlov,
behaviorist concepts and gaining explains learning as the result
public attention. Skinner utilized of associating a natural
stimulus-response principles, stimulus with a neutral
employing reinforcement techniques stimulus to elicit a response.
in training animals. Additionally, he Pavlov's famous dog
applied behaviorism to formulate experiment involved pairing
ideas on effective child education and the ringing of a bell with the
the promotion of peaceful and presentation of food, leading
productive societies, as detailed in his the dog to associate the bell
works from 1957, 1968, and 1972. with food and salivate in
anticipation. The key
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
components of classical
 Albert Bandura, a pioneer in conditioning include the
observational learning, challenged unconditioned stimulus
Skinner's conditioning theory by (natural trigger),
highlighting the role of imitation in unconditioned response
acquiring behaviors. He introduced (automatic reaction),
the concept of reciprocal determinism, conditioned stimulus (initially
emphasizing the ongoing interaction neutral trigger), and
between individuals and their conditioned response (learned
environment. According to Bandura, reaction). This theory is
individuals are not merely products of applicable to everyday
behaviors and phobias, as
 illustrated by the example of
developing claustrophobia
after associating fear with
enclosed spaces due to a
negative experience in an
elevator.
2. Operant conditioning theory
- Operant conditioning theory,
attributed to B.F. Skinner,
posits that learning occurs
through rewards and
punishments for specific
behaviors. If an organism is
rewarded for a behavior, it is
likely to repeat it, while
punishable behavior is less
likely to be repeated. Skinner's
experiments, based on Edward
Thorndike's law of effect,
involved a rat in a Skinner box
where pressing a lever resulted
in food pellets, illustrating
operant conditioning. This
theory includes positive
reinforcement (rewarding
behavior), negative
reinforcement (removing
something unpleasant), and
punishment (intending to
decrease a behavior). Positive
punishment involves an
unpleasant consequence, and
negative punishment involves
the removal of something
pleasant. Operant conditioning
explains how behaviors are
shaped through consequences.
LESSON 3: THE BEGINNING OF LIFE
 Human development encompasses a
series of stages, beginning with the
formation of life after the union of
reproductive cells. The subsequent
stages involve intricate processes
within the womb, leading to a series of
formations crucial for lifelong
development. To grasp a foundational
understanding of human development,
it is essential to explore the key
concepts associated with the inception
of life.
 The beginning of human life involves
the union of a male sex cell (sperm)
and a female sex cell (egg), marking
the biological inception. Both sperm
and egg cells contain 23 chromosomes
with genes, responsible for heredity.
 Notably, differences exist between the
two: the mature egg has 23 matched
chromosomes, while the mature sperm
has 22 matched and one unmatched
chromosome, determining gender.
 Additionally, the male and female sex
cells undergo varying stages for life
production, with sperm going through
maturation and fertilization, and eggs
through maturation, ovulation, and
fertilization. Female ovulation
typically releases one mature egg
monthly, while males can produce
over 200 million sperm per
ejaculation.
1. Maturation. It is the natural ripening
of immature sex cells. A female is already
sexually matured when she encounters
menarche (the first menstruation) while
the male is through
nocturnal emission or the time when the
boy’s sleep is being disturbed because of
the wet dreams. Sexual maturation can
also determine through urinalysis and x-
ray.
2. Ovulation. It is the preliminary stage
of development of the female sex cells. It
is the process of the escape of one
matured egg cell in case of multiple births
to the fallopian tube during the menstrual
cycle.
3. Fertilization. It is the union of the
matured sperm and egg cells in the
fallopian tube. The fertilized egg is called
a zygote.
4. Conception. It occurs right after the
time of fertilization when the zygote is
already formed.
 In the case of multiple births, like
identical twins- it is due to the
splitting of the zygote after
fertilization. They are always of the
same sex because they contain
identical sets of chromosomes. While
fraternal twins are due to the
fertilization of two or more matured
egg cells.
 Zygote and Production of Body
Cells. The zygote begins to duplicate
itself as it passes through the fallopian
tube toward its prenatal home in the
uterus via the process of mitosis.
 Production of Gametes through
Meiosis. Meiosis is the process
through which male germ cells in the
testes and female germ cells in the
ovaries create sperm and eggs.
Four Main Patterns of Genetic Expression
1. Dominant-recessive inheritance is
straightforward. happens when a single
gene codes for an inherited feature and
that gene has two versions, or alleles: the
dominant version and the recessive one.
2. Codominance. refers to a type of
inheritance in which two different
versions (alleles) of the same gene are
expressed in an individual to produce
different phenotypes.
3. Sex-Related Inheritance. The X and Y
chromosomes are inherited through one of
the sex chromosomes. Dominant
inheritance occurs when a defective gene
from one parent causes a disease despite
the presence of a normal gene from the
other parent. The aberrant gene is the
dominant gene in the gene pair.
4. Inheritance that is polygenic. suggests
a character or phenotypic trait that is
controlled by more than one gene.
HEREDITARY DISORDERS
 Congenital defects are those that
exist at birth, albeit many of these
disorders are not detectable at
birth.
CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
 When a germ cell divides during
meiosis, its 46 chromosomes are
often unevenly distributed into
sperm or ova. In other words, one
of the resultant gametes may have
too many and the other too few
chromosomes. There are two kinds
of chromosomal abnormalities:
1. Many chromosomal
disorders involve the
23rd pair of
chromosomes, known as
the sex
chromosomes. Males are
occasionally born with an extra X
or Y chromosome, resulting in the
 genotypes XXY or XYY, and
females may survive if they inherit
a single X chromosome (XO),
three (XXX), four (XXXX), or
five (XXXXX).
2. Autosomal disorders - The
autosomes, or the 22 pairs of
chromosomes that are comparable
in
boys and females, are responsible
for a number of genetic disorders.
GENETIC ABNORMALITIES
 Parents who are themselves
healthy are often amazed to learn
that their child could have a
hereditary defect.
 It is pass from one generation to
another.
 If the parents have a history of
genetic abnormalities, there is a
high possibility that they can pass
on those abnormalities to their
children.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE BABY
1. The Prenatal Period - Pre means
before and natal means birth, so
pre-natal period is the stage before
the new life emerges from the
mother’s uterus. After fertilization,
the zygote will still divide and
redivide again and again, forming
a new organism or cell called a
blastocyst. After ten days of stay
in the fallopian tube, the
blastocyst, which is just a pinhead
size, will migrate to the uterus.
The prenatal period is divided into
three (3 stages):
a. The prenatal period,
preceding birth, unfolds
through three distinct stages.
In the Germinal Period or the
Period of the Zygote (lasting
from fertilization to 2 weeks),
the zygote, formed through the
union of sperm and egg,
remains small and relies on
yolk in the ovum for
sustenance. As it migrates to
the uterus, the zygote divides
into outer and inner layers,
with the outer layer developing
into the placenta, umbilical
cord, and amniotic sac, while
the inner layer transforms into
a new human being. Around
ten days after fertilization, the
zygote implants itself in the
uterine wall.
b. The subsequent Embryonic
Period (2 weeks to 2 months)
witnesses the development of
the embryo into a miniature
human, with major
developments occurring from
the head to extremities. All
essential external and internal
features are established,
accompanied by the initiation
of movement and limb activity.
The placenta, umbilical cord,
and amniotic sac develop, and
by the end of the second
month, the embryo measures 1
and ½ inches and weighs
around 1 and ¼ ounces.
c. The Fetal Period (2 months to
birth) brings changes in the
size and functioning of
previously formed parts,
internal organ development,
and the detection of fetal
heartbeat by the 15th week.
Fetal movements commence
and increase until the ninth
month when they slow down
due to crowding in the
amniotic sac. By the seventh
month, the fetus is developed
enough to survive if born
prematurely, and by the eighth
month, the fetal body is fully
 formed, albeit smaller than that
of a full-term infant. Alongside
these stages, the prenatal
period involves the
development of the amniotic
sac, providing a watery
lubricant for the baby's
movement, and the umbilical
cord, acting as a conduit for
nutrients, waste elimination,
and fetal breathing.
PROBLEMS IN PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT
1. Diseases Suffered by the Pregnant
Woman
- Rubella, a contagious viral
disease, typically manifests
with mild symptoms including
a low-grade fever, sore throat,
and a rash starting on the face
and spreading to the entire
body.
- Toxoplasmosis, caused by an
animal parasite, can affect
pregnant women through the
consumption of raw meat or
handling the excrement of a
family cat that has ingested an
infected animal.
- Sexually Transmitted
Infections (STIs), prevalent
and transmitted through
vaginal, oral, and anal
intercourse, result in millions
of new infections annually in
the United States.
- Syphilis, a common STI, can
breach the placental barrier,
leading to miscarriage or
significant birth abnormalities
in the middle and later stages
of pregnancy.
- Genital Herpes, another STI,
poses risks to newborns,
potentially causing blindness,
brain damage, or even death.
- Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome (AIDS), a viral
disease, can be transmitted
from mother to fetus or
neonate, resulting in a
compromised immune system
and eventual mortality.
- Drugs. Medications used
during pregnancy have
historically raised concerns
about potential harm to the
developing organism. Even
seemingly moderate drugs
with minimal long-term effects
on pregnant women can pose
significant risks to the
developing embryo or fetus. \
- Alcohol. Alcohol affects fetal
development both directly and
indirectly by interfering with
placental function.
- Cigarette smoking, Their
study found that neonates
exposed to nicotine in utero
had faster heart rates during
both calm and active sleep
compared to neonates whose
mothers did not smoke during
pregnancy.
KINDS OF BIRTH
1. Natural or Spontaneous birth. The
position of the fetus and its size in
relation to the mother’s reproductive
organs allow it to emerge in the
normal, head-first position.
2. Breech birth. The buttocks appear
first, followed by the legs and finally
the head.
3. Cesarean birth. When an X-ray
indicates that complications may
result if the infant emerges through the
birth canal, the baby is brought into
the external environment using a slit
made surgically in the mother’s
abdominal wall.
4. Instrumental birth. When the fetus is
too large to emerge spontaneously or
 when its position makes normal birth
impossible, instruments must be used
to aid in delivery.
LESSON 4: INFANCY (BIRTH- 2 a. Period of Partunate (from
WEEKS)
 Infancy, or the period of the newborn
is the beginning or the early period of
existence as an individual rather than
as a parasite in the mother’s body
 The word infant suggests extreme
helplessness, and it will be limited to
the first few weeks of life
THE BRAIN IN THE FIRST TWO
YEARS
 The baby brain develops quickly. The
brain weighs roughly 250 grams (half
a pound) at birth and 750 grams after
one year (Eliot, 1999).
 The cortex is divided into two
hemispheres, with each hemisphere
divided into four lobes separated by
fissures. When we look at the cortex
from the front of the brain to the top,
2. Infancy is a Time of Radical
we observe the frontal lobe (behind
the forehead), which is principally
responsible for thinking, planning,
memory, and judgment.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INFANCY
 Each period in the life span is
characterized by certain
developmental phenomena that
distinguish it from the periods that
precede and follow it. While some of
these phenomena may be associated
with other periods, they appear in a
distinctive form during infancy.
1. Infancy is the Shortest of all
Developmental Periods - Infancy
begins with birth and ends when
the infant is approximately two
weeks old, by far the shortest of all
developmental periods. In spite of
its shortness, infancy is generally
subdivided into two periods:
birth - 15 to 30 minutes
after birth). This period
begins when the fetal body
has emerged from the
mother’s body and lasts
until the umbilical cord has
been cut and tied.
b. Period of Neonate (from
the cutting and tying of the
umbilical cord to
approximately the end of
the second week of
postnatal life). The infant is
now a separate,
independent individual and
is no longer a parasite.
During this period, the
infant must make
adjustments to the new
environment outside the
mother’s body.
Adjustments - Infancy is the time
when the fetus must adjust to life
outside the uterine walls of the
mother where it has lived for
approximately nine months.
Major Adjustments of Infancy
a. Temperature Changes.
The constant temperature
inside the mother’s uterus
is 100- degree Fahrenheit,
while the temperatures in
the hospital or home range
from 60–70- degree
Fahrenheit.
b. Breathing. In the prenatal
life, the fetus is breathing
by means of the umbilical
cord but since it was cut
after birth, the infant must
 begin to breathe on their
own.
c. Sucking and Swallowing.
The infant must now get
nourishment by sucking
and swallowing, instead of
receiving it through the
umbilical cord.
d. Elimination. Before the
waste products of the fetus
were eliminated through
the umbilical cord, the
elimination organs of
infant begin to work soon
after birth.
3. Infancy is a Plateau in
Development - This period is a plateau
in development in a sense that there
would be a sudden stop in the rapid
growth and development encountered
by the infant during pre-natal stage
like for an instance loss of weight.
While a plateau in development
during infancy is normal, many
parents, especially those
of firstborn children, become
concerned about it and fear that
something is wrong with their child.
4. Infancy is a Preview of Later
Development - Although it is not
possible to predict what the
individual’s future development
5. Infancy is a Hazardous Period -
Infancy is a hazardous period, both
physically and psychologically
CONDITIONS INFLUENCING
ADJUSTMENT TO POSTNATAL LIFE
 The successful adjustments of infants
to postnatal life can be influenced by
many conditions.
- Prenatal Environment. The
first condition that influences
the kind of adjustment infants
make to postnatal life is the
kind of prenatal environment
they had.
- Kind of Birth. The second
condition that influences the
kind of adjustment that will be
made to postnatal life is the
kind of birth the infant
experiences.
- Experiences Associated with
Birth. Infants whose mothers
are heavily medicated during
labor show drowsiness and
disorganized behavior for three
or more days after birth, as
compared with one or two
days for those whose mothers
are lightly medicated or
receive no medication at all.
- Length of Gestation Period.
Another condition that
influences infants’ adjustments
to postnatal life is the length of
the gestation period (carrying
the offspring in the womb).
Very few infants are born
exactly 280 days after
conception.
- Parental Attitudes. When
parental attitudes are
unfavorable, for whatever the
reason, they are reflected in
treatment of the infant that
influences against successful
adjustments to postnatal life.
- Postnatal Care. The last
influential condition is the kind
of postnatal care the newborn
receives during the infancy
period.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INFANT
1. Physical Development
Infants differ greatly in appearance
and physiological functions at birth
and in their early adjustments after
birth.
 Size. At birth, the average
infant weighs 7 & ½ pounds
and measures 19 & ½ inches in
length.
  Infantile Features. The
muscles of the newborn infant
are soft, small, and
uncontrolled. The bones, like
the muscles are soft and
flexible so they can readily be
misshapen
 Physical Proportions. The
newborn is not a miniature
adult. The head is
approximately onefourth of the
body length; the adult head, by
comparison, is approximately
one seventh of the total body
length.
 Physiological Functions.
Neonatal heartbeat is more
rapid than that of the adult
because the infants’ heart is
small compared with the
arteries. Reflex sucking
movements occur when the
infant is hungry or when the
lips are touched. Elimination
of waste products begins a few
hours after birth.
2. Activities of the Infant - Movements
of the body appear as soon as the fetus
emerges from the mother’s body. In
spite of their random, meaningless
nature, movements of the infant can
be classed, roughly, into two general
categories.
a. Mass Activity. This activity occurs
throughout the entire body when any
area is stimulated, though the activity
is most pronounced in the stimulated
area.
b. Specific Activity. Specific activities
involve certain limited areas of the
body.
3. Vocalization of the Infant
a. Crying - Normally, crying begins at
birth or short afterward. Occasionally,
in a long and difficult birth, the fetus
will cry even while in the uterus.
b. Explosive sounds - In addition to
crying, the newborn infant
occasionally makes explosive sounds
similar to heavy breathing. They are
uttered without meaning or intent and
occur purely by chance whenever the
vocal muscles contract.
4. Sensory Capacities of Infants
a. Vision. Newborn infants are far
from blind but their visual field is only
about one-half that of adults because
the rods are undeveloped except
around the fovea. Color vision is
either totally absent or minimal, due to
the undeveloped state of the cones.
b. Hearing. It is believed that hearing
is the least developed of all the senses
at birth partly because the stoppage of
the middle ear with amniotic fluid for
several days after birth
c. Smell. The cells for smell, located
in the upper part of the nose, are well
developed at birth
d. Taste. Because is markedly
influenced by smell and because the
cells for taste, located on the
surface of the tongue and in the cheek
areas, are well developed, the infant’s
sense of taste is keen.
e. Skin Sensitivities. The sense organs
for touch, pressure, and temperature
are well developed at
birth and lie close to the surface of the
skin.
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Infants develop their motor skills in a
logical order, moving from instinctive acts
(such sucking and rooting) to more
complex ones. The proximodistal (midline
outward) and cephalocaudal (head to tail)
principles govern growth, as was
explained in the prenatal section.
PIAGET AND THE SENSORIMOTOR
STAGE
 According to Piaget's theory,
individuals strive to maintain
cognitive equilibrium by balancing
their existing knowledge with new
experiences. Children, who frequently
encounter new information, work hard
to achieve this equilibrium. Piaget
proposes that the process involves
organizing this data through the
development of schemas. Schemas are
formed through assimilation, where
new knowledge is incorporated into
existing frameworks. For instance, a
child might refer to all four-legged
animals as "doggies" based on their
familiarity with the word "dog."
Alternatively, adaptation occurs when
a child broadens their conceptual
framework to encompass novel
situations, acquiring new words to
accurately describe them. The ability
to differentiate between a horse and a
zebra indicates the growth of distinct
schemas for each, demonstrating the
child's cognitive development.
 Substage 1: Reflexes. By
sucking, reaching, and
gripping reflexes, newborns
learn about their surroundings.
These reflexes are eventually
used more consciously and on
purpose.
 Substage 2: Primary Circular
Reactions, during the
following three months, the
infant starts actively involving
his or her own body in some
kind of repetitive action. An
infant could unintentionally
engage in a behavior that
piques his or her interest, such
vocalization. This curiosity
encourages the infant to try
again and helps the child learn
a new habit that developed
accidentally. The activity is
categorized as circular because
it is repeated, and it is
categorized as primary because
it concentrates on the infant's
own body.
 Substage 3: Secondary
Circular Reactions. The baby
begins interacting with things
in his surroundings. At first,
the infant interacts with objects
(like a crib mobile)
accidentally, but over time,
these interactions develop into
conscious rituals. The baby
becomes more engaged with
the outside world and enjoys
being able to influence events.
The baby can bang two cabinet
lids together while sitting on
the kitchen floor, which
attracts the baby's attention.
 Substage 4: Coordination of
Secondary Circular Reactions.
The infant combines these
fundamental reflexes and
straightforward behaviors with
thought and coordination to
achieve a specific objective.
The infant may now imitate
other people's behavior and
foresee future events. The
newborn may be able to
generate a concept and execute
a planned, goal-directed
behavior due to ongoing
prefrontal brain maturation.
For instance, if a baby sees a
toy car beneath the kitchen
table, the child will crawl over,
reach for the object, and take
it. The infant coordinates both
internal and external behaviors
to reach a specific goal.
 Substage 5: Tertiary Circular
Reactions. The toddler is said
to as a "little scientist" because
he or she starts out by making
 mistakes and using both motor
skills and planning abilities to
learn about the world. The
youngster might, for instance,
throw her ball down the steps
to see what happens. The
toddler learns about their
surroundings by actively
participating in exploration.
 Substage 6: Beginning of
Representational Thought.
When symbolic or
representational mind emerges,
the sensorimotor age is over.
The young child is now aware
that objects can serve as
symbols for concepts. The
child can also use mental
processes to solve problems,
recall and repeat what they
heard days before, and play
pretend. Preoperational
thought begins with this initial
shift from a "hands-on"
approach to learning about the
environment to the more
conceptual world of substage
six.
 Construction of Object
Permanence: During the
sensorimotor period, the emergence of
object permanence marks a significant
turning point. According to Bogartz,
Shinskey, and Schilling (2000), object
persistence is the conviction that
something exists even when it is
hidden from view.
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN
INFANCY
 Temperament refers to a child's
inherent characteristics, including
mood, activity level, and emotional
response, which are apparent from
birth. Newborns exhibit three
temperament types: the simple child
(40%) copes well with events, is easy
to comfort, and generally in a good
mood; the difficult child (10%)
struggles with routine, reacts poorly to
new situations, and tends to be
unhappy; and the 15% of children
taking longer to warm up to new
environments often exhibit low
activity levels and frequent
depression.
 Infant emotions are categorized into
self-conscious emotions (envy, pride,
humiliation, guilt, doubt,
embarrassment) and basic emotions
(interest, happiness, rage, fear,
surprise, sadness, disgust). Secondary
emotions emerge as children develop a
sense of self, influenced by cultural
contexts guiding emotional
expression.
 Attachments, crucial for future
relationships, form between infants
and caregivers, providing a foundation
for self-esteem and curiosity. Research
focuses on understanding how
attachments develop in infancy,
recognizing their significant impact on
infants' self-conceptions. Emotional
facial expressions play a key role in
regulating social interactions during
this developmental stage.
HAZARDS OF INFANCY
 In spite of its short duration,
infancy is one of the most
hazardous periods in the life span.
Hazards at this time maybe
physical, psychological, or both,
and they can affect both present
and future adjustment.
Physical Hazards
- unfavorable prenatal
environment,
- difficult and complicated birth,
- a multiple birth,
- post maturity and prematurity
 - conditions leading to infant
mortality.

Psychological Hazards

- helplessness
- traditional beliefs about birth
- individuality of the infant
- developmental lag
- plateau in development
- lack of stimulation
- new-parent blues
- unfavorable attitudes on the part of
significant people names (names
that are potential psychological
hazards; names that are so
common, names that are so
unusual, names that are used for
both sexes, names that are
associated with comic strip, names
that are difficult to pronounce or
spell, names that lend themselves
to embarrassing nicknames, and
old-fashioned names).