Chapter 1: The Study of Human Development Eight Periods of Humnan Development

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Age Period Physical Development Cognitive Development Psychosocial

• Focuses on the scientific study of the systematic change and stability in people.
Development
Prenatal Period Basic body structures and Abilities to learn and Fetus responds to
LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT organs forms, brain growth remember and to mother’s voice and
• Is considered “womb to womb”, compromising of the entire human life span from (conception to spurt begins. respond to sensory develops preference
conception to death birth) stimuli are developing for it.
Vulnerability to
THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: BASIC CONCEPTS environmental influences is
Developmental scientist study three major domains, or aspect of the self: great.
Infancy and All senses and body Abilities to learn and Attachments to
PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND PSYCHOSOCIAL systems operate at birth to remember are present parents and others
Toddlerhood varying degrees even in early weeks. form
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT (birth to age 3)
• The growth of the body and brain, sensory capacities, motor skills and health Physical growth and Comprehension and use Self-awareness
development of motor of language develop develops
skills are rapid rapidly.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Interest in other
• The growth of learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, children increases
and creativity Early Childhood Growth is steady; Thinking is somewhat Self-concept and
appearance becomes egocentric, but understanding of
(ages 3 to 6) slender and proportions understanding of other emotions become
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT are adultlike people’s perspectives more complex, self-
• The growth of emotions, personality, and social relationships grows. esteem is global

Memory and language Gender identity

PERIODS OF THE LIFE SPAN improve develops
• Division of life span into periods is a SOCIAL CONSTRUCT: it is a concept Middle Growth slows Egocentrism diminishes. Self-concept become
or practice that is an invention of a particular culture of society. Children begin to think more complex,
Childhood Respiratory illnesses are logically but concretely. affecting self-esteem
HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND MATURATION (INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT) (ages 6 to 11) common, but health is
generally better than at any Cognitive gains permit Peers assume central
time in the life span. children to benefit from importance
HEREDITY formal schooling
• Consist of inborn traits and characteristics provided by the child’s biological Adolescence Physical growth and other Ability to think abstractly Search for identity
Parents (ages 11 to changes are rapid and more and use scientific including sexual
profound. reasoning develops. identity, becomes
about 20) central.
ENVIRONMENT
Reproductive maturity Immature thinking
• Consist of influences from outside of the body, starting at conception with the occurs persists in some attitudes Peer group may exert
Prenatal environment in the womb continuing throughout life. and behaviors. a positive or negative
influence.
MATURATION Emerging and Physical conditions peaks, Thoughts and moral Personality traits and
• Typical changes in an infant such as the ability to walk and talk are tied to then declines slightly. judgement become more styles become
Young complex. relatively stable, but
maturation of the body and brain, thus resulting to the natural sequence of Adulthood Lifestyle choices influences changes in
physical changes and behavior patterns. health. Educational and personality may be
(ages 20 to 40)
occupational choices are influenced by life
made. stages and events.
 Middle Slow deteriorations of
sensory abilities, health,
Adulthood stamina, and strength may
(ages 40 to 65) begin, but individual
differences are wide.
Women experience
menopause.
Late Adulthood Most people are healthy
and active, although health
(ages 65 and and physical abilities
over) generally decline.
Mental abilities peak, Sense of identity THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT
expertise and practical develops; midlife • The time in which people live, something developmentalists paid little attention to.
problem-solving are high. transition may occur.
• It focuses on how certain experiences, tied to time and place, affect the course of
Creative output may Dual responsibilities people’s lives.
decline but improve in of caring for children
quality. and parents may NORMATIVE AND NONNORMATIVE INFLUENCES
cause stress.
Most people are mentally Search for meaning
alert. in life assumes NORMATIVE INFLUENCES
central importance. • Two types of normative influences are biological and environmental events that
Although intelligence and affect many or most people in a society in similar ways and events that touch on
memory may deteriorate Relationships with certain individuals.
in some areas, most family and friends
people find way to can provide NORMATIVE AGE-GRADED INFLUENCES
compensate. important support.
• Events that are highly similar for people in a particular age group i.e., puberty.

CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT NORMATIVE HISTORY-GRADED INFLUENCES

• Are significant events that shape the behavior and attitudes of a historical generation
FAMILY i.e., The World War II or the Great Depression)

• NUCLEAR FAMILY, is a household consisting of one or two parents and their

children, whether biological, adopted, or stepchildren. (common in the UNITED NONORMATIVE INFLUENCES
STATES) • Are unusual events that have a major impact on individual lives because they disturb
• EXTENDED FAMILY, is a multigenerational network of grandparents, aunt, uncles, the sequence of the life cycle.
cousins, and more distant relatives. (common in the ASIA, AFRICA, and LATIN
AMERICA)
TIMING OF INFLUENCVES: CRITICAL OR SENSITIVE PERIODS
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
IMPRINTING
• Poverty is stressful and can damage children’s and families’ physical, cognitive, and
• Is the phenomenon in which newly birthed species will instinctively follow the first
psychosocial well-being. Poor children are more likely than other children to go
moving object that they see, whether it is a member of their species of not. This is
hungry, to have frequent illnesses, to lack access to health care, to experience
automatic and irreversible
violence and family conflict, and to show emotional or behavioral problem.

CULTURE AND RACE/ETHNICITY CRITICAL PERIOD

• a specific time when a given event, or its absence, has a specific impact on
• CULTURE, refers to a society or group’s total way of life including its customs, development.
traditions, laws, knowledge, beliefs, values, language, and physical products from
where all behavior and attitudes are learned.
• ETHNIC GROUP, consists of people united by a distinctive culture, ancestry, religion,
language, or national origin, all of which contribute to a sense of shared identity and
shares attitudes, beliefs and values.

(ETHNIC GLOSS – AN OVERGENERALIZATION THAT OBSCURES OR BLURS VARIATIONS AND DIVERSITY WITHIN
GROUPS. I.E., TERMS SUCH AS BLACK OR HISPANIC)
 Life-Span Development Approach Chapter 2: Theory and Research
DEVELOPMENT IS Development is a lifelong process of change. Each period of life SCIENTIFIC THEORY
LIFELONG is affected by what happened before and will affect what is to • is a set of logically related concepts or statements that seek to describe and explain
come. development and to predict the kinds of behavior that might occur under certain
conditions
DEVELOPMENT IS Development occurs along multiple interacting dimensions –
MULTIDIMENSIONAL biological, psychological, and social – each of which may develop
at varying rates. IS DEVELOPMENT ACTIVE OR REACTIVE?
DEVELOPMENT IS As peo0ple gain in one area, they may lose in another, • Psychologist who believes that development is reactive conceptualize the developing
MULTIDIRECTIONAL sometimes at the same time. Children most grow in one child as a hungry sponge that soaks up experience and is shaped by this input over
direction but then the balance shifts when they reach time.
adolescence in which they may start to gain and decline on some • While psychologist who believes that development is active argue that people create
areas of growth. experiences for themselves and are motivated to learn about the world around them.
RELATIVE Development is influenced by both biology and culture, but
INFLUENCES OF while biological abilities weaken and deteriorate by age, cultural
BIOLOGY AND support may help compensate. MECHANISTIC MODEL (forerunner: Locke)
CULTURE SHIFT • People are like machines that react to environmental input
OVER THE LIFE • Machines do not operate on their own will; they react automatically to physical
SPAN forces. In mechanistic view, human behavior is the same. It results from operation of
DEVELOPMENT Individuals choose to invest their resources of time, energy, biological parts in response to external or internal stimulus.
INVOLVES talent, money, and social support in varying ways. Resources • Mechanistic researchers want to identify the factors that make people behave as
CHANGING may be used for growth, for maintenance or recovery, or for they do.
RESOURCE dealing with loss when maintenance and recovery is not
available.
ALLOCATIONS ORGANISMIC MODEL (forerunner: Rousseau)
DEVELOPMENT Many abilities, such as memory, strength, and endurance, can be
• This model sees people as active, growing organisms that set their own development
SHOWS PLASTICITY improved significantly with training and practice, even late in
in motion.
life. However, even in children, plasticity has limits that depend
• This model believes that environmental influences does not cause development,
in part on the various influences on development
though they can speed or slow it.
DEVELOPMENT IS Each person develops within multiple contexts—circumstances
INFLUENCED BY or conditions defined in part by maturation and in part by time
THE HISTORICAL and place. Human beings not only influence but also are
influenced by their historical-cultural context.
IS DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS OR DISCONTINUOUS?
AND CULTURAL • Mechanistic theorists see development as continuous: occurring in small
CONTEXT incremental stages.
• Organismic theorists are proponents of stage theories in which development is seen
as occurring in a series of distinct stages, like stairsteps

Quantitative change
• Development is always governed by the same processes that involves the gradual
and continuous refinement and extension of early skills into later abilities.

Qualitative change
• Is discontinuous and marked by the emergence of new phenomena that could not be
[TABULA RASA – BLANK SLATE] easily predicted on the basis of past functioning
 Five Perspective on Human Development Contextual Bronfenbrenne
r’s
bioecological
Development
occurs through
interaction
No Interaction of
innate and
experiential
Active

theory between a factors

Perspective Theories Propositions Stage- Emphasis Active/Rea developing
Oriented ctive person and five
Psycho- Freud’s Behavior is Yes Innate factors Reactive surrounding,
Psychosexual controlled by modified by interlocking
analytic contextual
Theory powerful experience
uncontrolled systems of
urges influences
Evolutionary Evolutionary Human beings No Interaction of Active and
Erikson’s Personality is Interaction of Active Psychology; are the product innate and reactive
Psychosocial influenced by innate and Bowlby’s of adaptive experiential
Theory society and experiential attachment processes, factors
develops factors theory which interact
through a with the
series of crises current
Learning Behaviorism or People are No Experience Reactive environment
traditional responders; to shape
learning theory the behavior
(Pavlov, environment
Skinner, controls
Watson) behavior CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• By physiologist Ivan Pavlov
Social learning Children learn Experience Active and
(Social in a social modified by Reactive • Is the response to a stimulus that is evoked after repeated association with a
Cognitive) context by innate factors stimulus that normally elicits the response.
theory observing and
(Bandura) imitating OPERANT CONDITIONING
models; they • is a process by which humans and animals learn to behave in such a way as to obtain
are active
rewards and avoid punishment.
learners
Cognitive Piaget’s Qualitative Yes Interaction of Active
[B.F SKINNER ARGUED THAT AN ORGANISM— ANIMAL OR HUMAN—WILL TEND TO REPEAT A RESPONSE
cognitive-stage changes in innate and
THAT HAS BEEN REINFORCED BY DESIRABLE CONSEQUENCES AND WILL SUPPRESS A RESPONSE THAT
theory thought occur experiential
HAS BEEN PUNISHED]
with factors
development.
REINFORCEMENT
Vygotsky’s Social Yes (for Experience • is the process by which a behavior is strengthened, increasing the likelihood that a
sociocultural interaction is concept behavior will be repeated.
theory central to formation)
cognitive PUNISHMENT
development
• is the process by which a behavior is weakened, decreasing the likelihood of its
repetition.
Information Human beings No Interaction of
processing are processors innate and
theory of symbols experiential COGNITIVE GROWTH OCCURS THROUGH THREE INTERRELATED PROCESSES:
factors • ORGANIZATION – the tendency to create categories, such as birds, by observing the
characteristics of the individual members of a category and what they have in
common.
• SCHEMES are ways of organizing information about the world that governs the way
a child thinks. (is an increasingly complex cognitive structure)
 • ADAPTATION – is Piaget’s term for how children handle new information in light of MICROSYSTEM
what they already know. - Consist of everyday environment i.e., home, work, school, neighborhood.
Adaptation occurs through two complementary processes: MESOSYSTEM
1. Assimilation – taking new information and incorporating it into existing - Is the interlocking influence of microsystem. It may include linkage between home
cognitive structures. and school or between family and peer group.
2. Accommodation – adjusting one’s cognitive structures to fit the new EXOSYSTEM
information.
- Consists of an interaction between a microsystem and an outside system or
• EQUILIBRATION – is Piaget’s term for when children want what they understood of
the world to match what they observe around them. institution.
MACROSYSTEM
- Consist of overarching cultural patterns, such as dominant beliefs, ideologies, and
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT economic and political systems.
- Is the gap between what children are already able to do by themselves and what they CHRONOSYSTEM
can accomplish with assistance. - Represents the dimension of time. Time marches on, and as it does, changes occur.
This includes changes in family composition, place of residence, or parent
SCAFFOLDING employment.
- The supportive assistance with a task that parents, teachers, or others give a child
ETHOLOGY
- Is the study of adaptive behaviors of animal species in natural context.
ENVIRONMENTS THAT SURROUND DEVELOPMENT

Research Methods
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative Research – deals with objectively measured
Qualitative Research – focuses on the how and why of behavior, commonly involves
nonnumerical descriptions of participants’ subjective understanding, feelings or belief
about their experience.

Qualitative research on human development is based on the SCIENTIFIC METHOD, the steps
are:

1. Identification of a problem
2. Formulation of hypothesis
3. Collection of Data
4. Statistical Analysis
5. Dissemination of Findings

SAMPLING

Sample
- A smaller group within a population
Random Selection
- A way for quantitative researchers to seek and achieve representativeness
- Each person in a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen.
 Methods of Data Collection Basic Research Designs
The common ways of gathering data include SELF-REPORTS (verbal or visual reports by - A case study is a study of an individual
participants), observation (in the laboratory or natural setting), and behavioral or - They may be used for behavioral or physiological
Case Study measures and biographical, autobiographical, or
performance measures. documentary materials.
- Are particularly useful for studying something
relatively rare.
Self-Reports - Seeks to describe the pattern of relationships, customs,
(Diary, visual reports, interview, or - The DIARY or LOG is the simplest form of
beliefs, technology, arts, and traditions that make up a
self-reports
questionnaire Ethnographic Study society’s way of life.
- Uses a combination of methods, including informal,
unstructured interviewing and participant observation

- In naturalistic observation, researchers look

at people in real-life settings.
Naturalistic Observation
- They do not try to alter behavior or the
environment; they simply record what they
see.
- In laboratory observation, researchers
Laboratory Observation
observe and record behavior in a controlled
environment, such as a laboratory.
- Seeks to determine whether a correlation, or statistical
Correlational Study relationship, exist between variables.
- Is a controlled procedure in which the experimenter
manipulates variables to learn how one affects another
Experiment - Scientific experiments must be conducted and
reported in such a way that another experimenter can
replicate them, that is, repeat them in exactly the same
way with different participants to verify the results
and conclusions.

- For quantitative research, investigators

Behavioral and Performance typically use more objective measures of GROUPS AND VARIABLES
behavior or performance instead of, or in
Measures addition to, self-reports or observation
Experimental Group
- Consist of people who are to be exposed to the experimental manipulation or
treatment.
Control Group
EVALUATING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH - Consist of people who are similar to the experimental group but do not receive the
experimental treatment or may receive a different treatment.
- In comparison with quantitative research based on the scientific method, qualitative
research has both strengths and limitations
- On the positive side, qualitative research can examine a question in great depth and Independent Variable
detail, and the research framework can readily be revised in the light of new data. - Is something over which the experimenter has direct control
- Findings of qualitative research can be a rich source of insights into attitudes and Dependent Variable
behavior - Is something that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent
variable
- In other words, it depends on the independent variable
Operational Definition
- A definition solely in terms of operations used to measure a phenomenon
COMMON RESEARCH STRATEGIES
- Most clearly illustrates similarities or
Cross-Sectional Study differences among people of different ages
- Data are collected on people of different ages
at the same time
- Tracks people over time and focuses on
Longitudinal Study individual change with age
- Data are collected on same person or persons
over a period of time
- Combines the two approaches to minimize
the drawbacks of the separate approaches
Sequential Study
- Data are collected on successive cross-
sectional or longitudinal samples
Chapter 3: Forming a New Life
CONCEIVING NEW LIFE
Fertilization
- Or conception, is the process by which sperm and ovum combine to create a single cell
called zygote, which then duplicates itself again and again by cell division to produce
cells that make up a baby.
TYPES OF TWINS
Dizygotic Twins
- Or fraternal twins, are result of two separate eggs being fertilized by two different
sperm to form two unique individuals.
Monozygotic Twins
- They result from the cleaving of one fertilized egg and are generally genetically
identical. They can still differ outwardly, however, because people are the result of the
interaction between genes and environmental influences
MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
- The “stuff” in heredity
Chromosomes
- Are coils of DNA that consist of smaller segments called genes
Prenatal Development
During the first month, growth is more rapid than at any other time
1 month during life; the embryo reaches a size 10,000 times greater than the
zygote. By the end of the first month, it measures about ½ inch in length
By the end of the second month, the embryo becomes a fetus. It is less
7 weeks than 1 inch long and weighs only 1/3 ounce. Its head is half its total body
length. Facial parts are developed, with tongue and teeth buds. The arms
have hands, fingers, and thumbs, and the legs have knees, ankles, feet,
and toes. The fetus has a thin covering of skin.
By the end of the third month, the fetus weighs about 1 ounce and
3 months measures about 3 inches in length. It has fingernails, toenails, eyelids
(still closed), vocal cords, lips, and a nose. Its head is still large—about
one-third its total length—and its forehead is high. Sex is detectable.
The head is now only one-fourth the total body length, the same
4 months proportion it will be at birth. The fetus now measures 8 to 10 inches and
 weighs about 6 ounces. The placenta is now fully developed. The mother
may be able to feel the fetus kicking, a movement known as quickening Chapter 4: Birth and Physical Development During the
5 months
The fetus, now weighing about 12 ounces to 1 pound and measuring
about 1 foot, has definite sleep-wake patterns, a favorite position in the
Frist Three Years
uterus (called its lie), and becomes more active—kicking, stretching,
squirming, and even hiccup. The sweat and sebaceous glands are
functioning.
The rate of fetal growth has slowed a little—by the end of the sixth STAGES OF CHILDBIRTH
6 months month, the fetus is about 14 inches long and weighs 1 1/4 pounds. It has
fat pads under the skin; the eyes open, close, and look in all directions. It The first stage, dilation of the cervix, is the longest, typically
can hear, and it can make a fist with a strong grip. Stage 1: Dilation of lasting 12 to 14 hours for a woman having her first child. In
Cervix subsequent births, the first stage tends to be shorter. During this
By the end of the seventh month, the fetus, about 16 inches long and
stage, regular and increasingly frequent uterine contractions—15
7 months weighing 3 to 5 pounds, now has fully developed reflex patterns. It cries,
to 20 minutes apart at first—cause the cervix to shorten and
breathes, and swallows, and it may suck its thumb. The lanugo may
dilate, or widen, in preparation for delivery
disappear at about this time, or it may remain until shortly after birth.
Head hair may continue to grow. The second stage, descent and emergence of the baby, typically
Stage 2: Descent lasts up to an hour or two. It begins when the baby’s head begins
The 8-month-old fetus is 18 to 20 inches long and weighs between 5 and
and Emergence of to move through the cervix into the vaginal canal, and it ends
8 months 7 pounds. Its living quarters are becoming cramped, and so its
the Baby when the baby emerges completely from the mother’s body. At
movements are curtailed. During this month and the next, a layer of fat is
the end of this stage, the baby is born but is still attached to the
developing over the fetus’s entire body, which will enable it to adjust to
placenta in the mother’s body by the umbilical cord
varying temperatures outside the womb
About a week before birth, the fetus stops growing, having reached an
Stage 3: Expulsion The third stage, expulsion of the placenta, lasts between 10
9 months average weight of about 7½ pounds and a length of about 20 inches,
of the Placenta minutes and 1 hour. During this stage, the placenta and the
with boys tending to be slightly longer. Fat pads continue to form, the
remainder of the umbilical cord are expelled from the mother
organ systems are operating more efficiently, the heart rate increases,
and more wastes are expelled through the umbilical cord. The reddish
color of the skin is fading
NEONATAL PERIOD
- Is the first 4 weeks of life
Germinal Stage (Fertilization to 2 weeks) - A time of transition from the uterus, where the fetus is supported entirely by the
- During the germinal stage, from fertilization to about 2 weeks of gestational age, the mother, to an independent existence
zygote divides, becomes more complex, and is implanted in the wall of the uterus - NEONATE is a term for newborn
- Within 36 hours after fertilization, the zygote enters a period of rapid cell division and
duplication (mitosis). Seventy-two hours after fertilization, it has divided first into 16
and then into 32 cells; a day later it has 64 cells. THE APGAR SCALE
Embryonic Stage (2 to 8 weeks) - Is used to assess babies one minute after delivery or 5 minutes after birth
- During the embryonic stage, from about 2 to 8 weeks, the organs and major body - It is named after it’s develop Dr. Virginia Apgar and helps us remember it’s five
systems—respiratory, digestive, and nervous—develop rapidly. This process is subsets:
known as organogenesis. This is a critical period, when the embryo is most vulnerable Appearance (color)
to destructive influences in the prenatal environment Pulse (heart rate)
Fetal Stage (8 weeks to birth) Grimace (reflex irritability)
- The appearance of the first bone cells at about 8 weeks signals the beginning of the Activity (muscle tone)
fetal stage, the final stage of gestation. During this period, the fetus grows rapidly to Respiration (breathing)
about 20 times its previous length, and organs and body systems become more
complex. Right up to birth, “finishing touches” such as fingernails, toenails, and eyelids BRAZELTON NEONATAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT SCALE (NBAS)
continue to develop - A neurological and behavioral test to measure a neonate’s response to the
environment
STILLBIRTH
- Sudden death of a fetus at or after the 20th week of gestation, is a tragic union of Early Human Reflexes
opposites- birth and death
SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDORME (SIDS) Reflex Stimulation and Behavior Appearance -
- Is sometimes called crib death
- The sudden death of an infant under age 1 in which the cause of death remains
disappearance
unexplained - Baby is dropped or hears loud noise 7 months of
Moro - Baby extends legs, arms, and fingers, arches gestation – 3
back, and draws back head months
PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT - Baby’s palms are stroked 7 months of
CEPHALOCAUDAL PRINCIPLE Darwinian - Makes strong fist, can be raised to standing gestation – 4
- Growth occurs from top down (grasping) position if both fists are closed around a months
- Because the brain grows rapidly before birth, a newborn baby’s head is stick
disproportionately large. The head becomes proportionately smaller as the child - Baby is laid down on back 7 months of
grows in height and the lower parts of the body develop Tonic Neck - Baby turns head to one side, assumes fencer gestation – 5
PROXIMODISTAL PRINCIPLE position, extends arm and leg on preferred months
- Growth occurs from inner to outer side, flexes opposite limbs
- Growth and motor development proceed from the center of the body outward. In the - Both of baby’s palms are stroked at once Birth – 3
womb, the head and trunk develop before the arms and legs, then the hands and feet, Babkin - Mouth open, eyes close, neck flexes, head months
and then the fingers and toes. During infancy and early childhood, the limbs continue tilts forward
to grow faster than the hands and feet. Babies learn to use the parts of their bodies - Sole of baby’s foot is stroked Birth – 4
closest to the center of their body before they learn to use the outermost parts Babinski - Toes fan out; foot twist in months
- Baby’s cheek or lower lip is stroked by finger Birth – 9
of nipple months
Breast or Bottle? Rooting
- Baby’s head turns, mouth open, sucking
movement begins
BENEFITS OF BREST-FEEDING OVER FORMULA-FEEDING - Baby is held under arms, with bare feet 1 month – 4
Walking touching flat surface months
- Makes steplike motions that look like well-
- Are less likely to contract infectious illnesses such as diarrhea, coordinated walking
respiratory infections, otitis media (an infection of the middle ear), - Baby is put into water face down 1 month – 4
and staphylococcal, bacterial, and urinary tract infections - Makes well-coordinated swimming months
Swimming
- Have lower risk of SIDS or post-neonatal death movements
Breast-Fed Babies - Have less risk to inflammatory bowel disease
- Are less likely to develop obesity, asthma, eczema, diabetes,
lymphoma, childhood leukemia, and Hodgkin’s disease DEPTH PERCEPTION
- Are less likely to show language and motor delays - The ability to perceive objects and surfaces in three dimensions, depends on several
kinds of cues that affect the image of an object on the retina of the eye.

- Enjoy quicker recovery from childbirth with less risk of postpartum

bleeding HAPTIC PERCEPTION
- Are more likely to return to their pre-pregnancy weight and less - Involves the ability to acquire information by handling objects rather than just looking
Breast-Feeding likely to develop long-term obesity at them
Mothers - Have reduced risk of anemia and lowered risk of repeat pregnancy
while breast-feeding
- Report feeling more confident and less anxious
- Are less likely to develop osteoporosis or ovarian and
premenopausal breast cancer

Chapter 5: Cognitive Development During the First three
Years
BEHAVIORST APPROACH
- studies the basic mechanics of learning. Behaviorists are concerned with how
behavior changes in response to experience
(CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING DISCUSSED IN CHAPTER 2)
INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
HABITUATION
- a type of learning which repeated or continuous exposure to a stimulus reduces
attention to that stimulus.
- In other words, familiarity breeds loss of interest
DISHABITUATION
- If a new sight or sound is presented attention is once again captures, this response to
a new stimulus is called dishabituation
Information Processing and Piagetian Abilities
- Dividing the world into meaningful categories is vital to
Categorization thinking about objects or concepts and their relationship.
- It is the foundation of language, reasoning, problem solving,
and memory; without it, the world would seem chaotic and
meaningless
- The principle that one event causes another.
Causality - Piaget believed that about 4 to 6 months infants are able to
grasp objects and they begin to recognize that they can act on
their own environment.
- understanding that items and people still exist even when you
can't see or hear them
Object
- VIOLATION-OF-EXPECTATIONS is the research method in
Permanence
which dishabituation to a stimulus that conflicts with
experience is taken as evidence that and infant recognizes the
new stimulus as surprising
- McCrink and Wynn (2004) experiment suggest that even at
Number an early age, number is an abstract concept that can be
represented across different sensory modalities
[GUIDED PARTICIPATION - refers to mutual interactions with adults that help structure children’s
activities and bridge the gap between a child’s understanding and an adult’s]
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE APPROACH
IMPLICIT MEMORY
- Refers to remembering that occurs without effort or even conscious awareness
EXPLICIT MEMORY
- Also called declarative memory
- Is the intentional recollection, usually of facts names, events or other things that can
be stated or declared
WORKING MEMORY
- Is a short term storage of information the brain is actively processing or working on.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
LANGUAGE
- Is a communication system based on words and grammar
SEQUENCE OF EARLY LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
EARLY VOCALIZATION
- Crying is a newborn’s first means of communication. Different pitches, patterns, and
intensities signal hunger, sleepiness, or anger.
- Between 6 weeks to 3 months babies start cooing and at 6 to 10 months they start
babbling – that is repeating consonant-vowel strings.
- Imitation is key to early language development
PERCEIVING LANGUAGE SOUNDS AND STRUCTURE
- Imitation of language sounds requires the ability to perceive subtle differences
between sounds. Infants’ brains seem to be preset to discriminate basic linguistic
units, perceive linguistic patterns, and categorize them as similar or different
GESTURES
- Before babies can speak, they point
- Symbolic gestures, such as blowing to mean hot or sniffing to mean flower, often
emerge around the same time as babies say their first words, and they function much
like words. By using them, babies show they understand that symbols can refer to
specific objects, events, desires, and conditions.
FIRST WORDS
Receptive Vocabulary - what infants understand—continues to grow as verbal
comprehension gradually becomes faster and more accurate and efficient
FIRST SENTENCES
Telegraphic Speech – speech that consist of only a few essential words. Typically, with
children’s first sentences they deal with everyday events, things, people or activities.
CODE MIXING
- Use of elements of two languages, sometimes in the same utterance, by young children
in households where both languages are spoken
CODE SWITCHING
- Changing one’s speech to match the situation, as in people who are bilingual

Chapter 6: Psychosocial Development During the First Three
Years
PERSONALITY
- the relatively consistent blend of emotions, temperament, thought, and behavior that
makes each person unique
EMOTIONS
- such as fear are subjective reactions to experience that are associated with
physiological and behavioral changes. People differ in how often and how strongly
they feel a particular emotion, in the kinds of events that may produce it, in the
physical manifestations they show, and in how they act as a result
FIRST SIGNS OF EMOTIONS
- Crying is the earliest and most powerful way infants can
Crying
communicate their needs.
- There are four patterns of crying:
The basic hunger cry
The angry cry
The pain cry
The frustration cry
Smiling and - The earliest faint smiles occur spontaneously soon after
Laughing birth, apparently as a result of subcortical nervous system
activity. These involuntary smiles frequently appear during
periods of REM sleep
SOCIAL SMILING – when newborn infants gaze and smile
at their parents, this will develop in the 2nd month of life.
ANTICIPATORY SMILING – the way infants are
intentionally communicating to other about an object/ In
which they smile at an object and then gaze at an adult
while continuing to smile. Occurs between 8 to 10 months
of life.
TEMPERAMENT
- Temperament can be defined as an early-appearing, biologically based tendency to
respond to the environment in predictable ways
- Temperament affects how children approach and react to the outside world, as well as
how they regulate their mental, emotional, and behavioral functioning
- Individual differences in temperament, which derive from a person’s basic biological
makeup, form the core of the developing personality
GOODNESS OF FIT
- the match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands and
constraints the child must deal with
BEHAVIORAL INHIBITION
- has to do with how boldly or cautiously a child approaches unfamiliar objects and
situations
GENDER
- What it means to be male or female
DEVELOPING TRUST
- Erikson (1950) argued that at each stage in the life span, we are faced with a challenge
and a complementary risk. As babies, our first challenge involves forming a basic
sense of trust versus mistrust. If we are successful, we develop a sense of the
reliability of people and objects in our world. We feel safe and loved. The risk,
however, is that, instead, we develop a sense of mistrust and feel that those around us
cannot be counted on in times of need
ATTACHMENT
- is a reciprocal, enduring emotional tie between an infant and a caregiver, each of
whom contributes to the quality of the relationship
Strange Situation is a classic, laboratory-based technique designed to assess attachment
patterns between an infant and an adult. Typically, the adult is the mother (though other adults
have taken part as well), and the infant is 10 to 24 months old.
TYPES OF ATTACHEMENT
SECURE ATTACHMENT
- are flexible and resilient in the face of stress. They sometimes cry when a caregiver
leaves, but they quickly obtain the comfort they need once the caregiver returns.
AVOIDANT ATTACHEMENT
- are outwardly unaffected by a caregiver leaving or returning. They generally continue
to play in the room, and frequently interact with the stranger. However, upon the
caregiver’s return, they ignore or reject the caregiver, sometimes deliberately turning
away
AMBIVALENT (RESISTANT) ATTACHEMENT
- are generally anxious even before the caregiver leaves, sometimes approaching the
caregiver for comfort when the stranger looks at or approaches them for interaction.
They are extremely reactive to the caregiver’s departure from the room and generally
become very upset. Upon the caregiver’s return, these babies tend to remain upset for
long periods of time, kicking, screaming, refusing to be distracted with toys, and
sometimes arching back and away from contact
DISORGANIZED-DISORIENTED ATTACHEMENT
- lack a cohesive strategy to deal with the stress of the Strange Situation (a classic,
laboratory-based technique designed to assess attachment patterns between an infant
and an adult). Instead, they show contradictory, repetitive, or misdirected behaviors
(such as seeking closeness to the stranger instead of the mother or showing a fear
response upon the caregiver’s entry)
STRANGER ANZIETY AND SEPARARTION ANXIETY
STRANGER ANXIETY Chapter 7: Physical and Cognitive Development in Early
- wariness of a person she does not know
SEPARARTION ANXIETY Childhood
- distress when a familiar caregiver leaves her

MUTUAL REGULATION
- The ability of both infant and caregiver to respond appropriately and sensitively to
each other’s mental and emotional states

SOCIAL REFERENCING
- Seeking emotional information to guide behavior

DEVELOPMENT ISSUES IN TODDLERHOOD

THE EMERGING OF THE SELF
- self-concept is our image of ourselves—our total picture of our abilities and traits. It
describes what we know and feel about ourselves and guides our actions
- self-coherence, the sense of being a physical whole with boundaries separate from
the rest of the world
- self-awareness—conscious knowledge of the self as a distinct, identifiable being—
builds on this dawning of perceptual distinction between self and others
DEVELOPMENT OF AUTONOMY
- Erikson (1950) identified the period from about 18 months to 3 years as the second
stage in personality development, autonomy versus shame and doubt, which is
marked by a shift from external control to self-control. Having come through infancy
with a sense of basic trust in the world and an awakening self-awareness, toddlers
begin to substitute their own judgment for their caregivers’
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: SOCIALIZATION AND INTERNALIZATION
- Socialization is the process by which children develop habits, skills, values, and
motives that make them responsible, productive members of society
- Socialization rests on internalization of these standards. Children who are
successfully socialized no longer obey rules or commands merely to get rewards or
avoid punishment; rather they have internalized those standards and made them their
own

MALTREATMENT: ABUSE AND NEGLECT

TYPES OF MALTREATMENT
• Physical abuse, injury to the body through punching, beating, kicking, or burning
• Neglect, failure to meet a child’s basic needs, such as food, clothing, medical care,
protection, and supervision
• Sexual abuse, any sexual activity involving a child and an older person
• Emotional maltreatment, including rejection, terrorization, isolation, exploitation,
degradation, ridicule, or failure to provide emotional support, love, and affection
Chapter 8: Psychosocial Development in Early Childhood
 HEALTH, FITNESS, AND SAFETY
Chapter 9: Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle
OBESITY
Childhood - The most pressing and preventable health problem facing children today
- Obesity is defined as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that presents a risk to
health
ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
BODY IMAGE
HEIGHT AND WEIGHT
- Descriptive and evaluative beliefs about one’s appearance
- Children grow about 2 to 3 inches each year between ages 6 and 11 and
- How one believes one looks becomes important early in the middle childhood,
approximately double their weight during that period.
especially for girls, and may develop into eating disorders in adolescence
TOOTH DEVELOPMENT AND DENTAL CARE
OTHER MEDICAL CONDITIONS
- Access to proper dental care is important for young children. Untreated dental caries
- ACUTE MEDICAL CONDITIONS - Illnesses that last a short time.
can result in pain, difficulties in chewing food, missed school, problems with
- CHRONIC MEDICAL CONDITIONS - Illnesses or impairments that persist for at least 3
concentration, and discomfort with appearance.
months
NUTRITION - ASTHMA - A chronic respiratory disease characterized by sudden attacks of coughing,
- Nutritionists recommend a varied diet, including plenty of grains, fruits, and wheezing, and difficulty in breathing.
vegetables, and high levels of complex carbohydrates such as whole grains. - DIABETES - One of the most common diseases of childhood. It is characterized by high
- To avoid overweight and prevent cardiac problems, children, like adults, should levels of glucose in the blood as a result of defective insulin production, ineffective
get only about 25 to 30 percent of their total calories from fat and less than 10 insulin action, or both.
percent of the total from saturated fat - CHILDHOOD HYPERTENSION - Chronically high blood pressure
SLEEP
PIAGETIAN APPROACH: THE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL CHILD
- Sleep needs decline from 12.5 hours a day for 3- to 5-year-olds to 10 hours a day - Considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child's cognitive
for ages 6 to 13. However, many children do not get enough sleep, and such development at about age 7, according to Piaget, children enter the stage of concrete
problems are on the rise. operations when they can use mental operations, such as reasoning, to solve concrete
problems. Children can think logically because they can take multiple aspects of a
situation into account. However, their thinking is still limited to real situations in the
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY here and now.

ADVANCES OF COGNITIVE ABILITIES DURING CHILDHOOD

SELECTIVE ATTENTION
- School-age children can concentrate longer than younger children and can focus on
the information they need and want while screening out irrelevant information. This
growth in selective attention may hinge on the executive skill of inhibitory control.
The capacity for selective attention is believed to be due to neurological maturation
DEVELOPMENT OF MEMORY STRATEGIES
- Memory strategies refer to any of a broad set of techniques that are designed to help
one remember
METAMEMORY
- Metamemory is one component of metacognition and is associated with a number of
variables. Children's knowledge about their own minds is related to their mnemonic
device. They learn that some things are easier to remember than others.
GARNDER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
- Is a child who is good at analyzing paragraphs and making analogies more intelligent
than one who can play a challenging violin solo or pitch a baseball? The answer is no,
according to Brian Gardner's (1993, 1998) theory of multiple intelligences.
Gardner’s Eight Intelligences
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
- Is the analytic aspect of intelligence, determines how
Componential Element efficiently people process information
- It helps people solve problems, monitor solutions, and
evaluate the results. Some people are more effective
information processors than others.
- Is insightful or creative, determines how people approach
Experiential Element novel or familiar tasks.
- Enables people to compare new information with what
they already know and to come up with new ways of
putting facts together—in other words, to think originally
- Is practical; helps people deal with their environment
Contextual Element - What actions are most appropriate for a given situation
depend on the context; a person might decide to adapt to
a situation, change it, or get out of it.
LANGUAGE AND LITERACY
PRAGMATICS
- the social context of language. Pragmatics includes both conversational and narrative
skills
ENGLISH-IMMERSION APPROACH
- sometimes called ESL or English as second language. Language-minority children are
immersed in English from the beginning in special classes

BECOMING LITERATE
PHONETIC (CODE-EMPHASIS) APPROACH
- the child sounds out the word, translating it from print to speech before retrieving it
from long-term memory
- a method of teaching and learning reading based on the letters of the alphabet and
their associated sounds
WHOLE-LANGUAGE APPROACH
- emphasizes visual retrieval and the use of contextual cues. This approach is based on
the belief that children can learn to read and write naturally, much as they learn to
understand and use speech
METACOGNITION
- involves thinking about thinking
- More precisely, it refers to the processes used to plan, monitor, and assess one's
understanding and performance

INFLUENCES ON SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT

Self-Efficacy Beliefs
Gender
Parenting Practices
Socioeconomic Status
Peer acceptance
Educational Methods
Class Size
Alternative Educational Models
Media Use
EDUCATING CHILDREN WITH SEPCIAL NEEDS
INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY
- is significantly subnormal cognitive functioning. It is indicated by an IQ of about 70 or
less, coupled with a deficiency in ageappropriate adaptive behavior (such as
communication, social skills, and self-care), appearing before age 18
DYSLEXIA
- a developmental language disorder in which reading achievement is substantially
below the level predicted by IQ or age
LEARNING DISABILITIES (LDS)
- These are disorders that interfere with specific aspects of school achievement, such as
listening, speaking, reading, writing, or mathematics, resulting in performance
substantially lower than would be expected given a child’s age, intelligence, and
amount of schooling
ATTENTION-DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)
- has been called the most common mental disorder in childhood (Wolraich et al.,
2005). It is a chronic condition usually marked by persistent inattention,
distractibility, impulsivity, and low tolerance for frustration
CONVERGENT THINKING—the kind IQ tests measure—seeks a single correct answer
DIVERGENT THINKING - involves coming up with a wide array of fresh possibilities, such as when
children are asked to list how many different uses there might be for a paper clip or to write down
what a sound brings to mind
Chapter 10: Psychosocial Development in Middle Childhood
THE DEVELOPING SELF
- The cognitive growth that takes place during middle childhood enables children to
develop more complex concepts of themselves and to gain in emotional
understanding and control
SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT
REPRESENTATIONAL SYSTEMS
- In neo-Piagetian terminology, the third stage in development of self-definition,
characterized by breadth, balance, and the integration and assessment of various
aspects of the self
INDUSTRY VERSUS INFERIORITY
- Erikson’s fourth stage of psychosocial development, in which children must learn the
productive skills their culture requires or else face feelings of inferiority
EMOTIONAL GOWTH
- As children grow older, they are more aware of their own and other people’s feelings.
They can better regulate or control their emotions and can respond to others’
emotional distress.
- Children learn what makes them angry, fearful, or sad and how other people react to
displays of these emotions
THE CHILD IN THE FAMILY
FAMILY ATMOSPHERE
- Family atmosphere is a key influence on development. One key factor is whether or
not conflict is present in the home. Other important influences include parents’ work
status and the family socioeconomic level
COREGULATION - Transitional stage in the control of behavior in which parents
exercise general supervision and children exercise moment-to-moment self-
regulation
INTERNALIZING BEHAVIOR - Behaviors by which emotional problems are turned
inward; for example, anxiety or depression
EXTERNALIZING BEHAVIOR - Behaviors by which a child acts out emotional
difficulties; for example, aggression or hostility
FAMILY STRUCTURE
Adjusting to Divorce is stressful for children. First there is the stress of marital
Divorce conflict and then of parental separation with the departure of one
parent, usually the father. Children may not fully understand what is
happening. Divorce is, of course, stressful for the parents as well and
may negatively affect their parenting.
Living in a One- Children in single-parent families do fairly well overall but tend to lag
Parent Family socially and educationally behind peers in two-parent families
Living in a Research shows worse emotional, behavioral, and academic outcomes
Cohabiting for children living with cohabiting biological parents than for those
Family living with married biological parents
 Living in a Adjusting to a new stepparent may be stressful. A child’s loyalties to
Stepfamily an absent or dead parent may interfere with forming ties to a
stepparent
Living with Gay Same-sex couples are less likely to be raising children that were the
or Lesbian product of such unions and more likely to jointly be raising children
Parents that are the product of reproductive technologies such as artificial
insemination or adoption. A considerable body of research has
examined the development of children of gays and lesbians and has
found no special concerns
Adoptive Family Adopted children do tend to have more psychological and academic
difficulties than non-adopted children, these differences are small, and
most adopted children fall within the normal range of development
SIBLING RELATIONSHIPs
- Sibling relationships are important. This relationship is oftentimes one of
the longest relationships in a person’s life. You grow up in the same environment,
share the same parents, and share common memories and similar experiences.
You are who you are because of this shared history, which makes the relationship
unique and invaluable.
THE CHILD IN THE PEER GROUP
GENDER AND GROUPS
- Boys’ and girls’ peer groups engage in different types of activities. Groups of boys
more consistently pursue gender-typed activities, while those of girls are more likely
to engage in cross-gender activities
POPULARITY
- Popularity is important in middle childhood. Schoolchildren whose peers like them
are likely to be well adjusted as adolescents. Those who have trouble getting along
with peers are more likely to develop psychological problems, drop out of school, or
become delinquent
FRIENDSHIP
- Children look for friends who are like them in age, sex, activity level, and interests.
Children’s concepts of friendship and the ways they act with their friends change with
age, reflecting cognitive and emotional growth
AGRESSION AND BULLYING
- Boys’ and girls’ peer groups engage in different types of activities. Groups of boys
more consistently pursue gender-typed activities, while those of girls are more likely
to engage in cross-gender activities
TYPES OF AGRESSION AND SOCIAL INFORMATION PROCESSING
- Instrumental, or proactive aggressors view force and coercion as effective ways to
get what they want. They act deliberately, not out of anger
- Other children are more likely to engage in hostile or reactive aggression. Such a
child might, after being accidentally pushed by someone in the lunch line, assume that
the bump was on purpose and push back angrily
- All children might sometimes assume the worst of others, but children who habitually
assume the worst of others in situations such as these are said to have a hostile
attributional bias
BULLIES AND VICTIMS
- Aggression becomes bullying when it is deliberately, persistently directed against a
particular target: a victim. Bullying can be physical (hitting, punching, kicking, or
damaging or taking of personal belongings), verbal (name-calling or threatening), or
relational or emotional (isolating and gossiping, often behind the victim’s back).
MENTAL HEALTH
Common Emotional Problems
Disruptive Conduct Disorders
- Temper tantrums and defiant, argumentative, hostile, or deliberately annoying
behavior—common among 4- and 5-year-olds—typically are outgrown by middle
childhood as children get better at controlling these behaviors (Miner & Clarke-
Sterwart, 2009).
- Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) Pattern of behavior, persisting into middle
childhood, marked by negativity, hostility, and defiance
- Conduct Disorder (CD) Repetitive, persistent pattern of aggressive, antisocial
behavior violating societal norms or the rights of others
School Phobia and Other Anxiety Disorders
Disorders Descriptions
School Phobia Unrealistic fear of going to school; may be a form of
separation anxiety disorder or social phobia
Separation Anxiety Disorder Condition involving excessive, prolonged anxiety
concerning separation from home or from people to
whom a person is attached
Social Phobia Extreme fear and/or avoidance of social situations
Generalized Anxiety Disorder Anxiety not focused on any single target
Obsessive-Compulsive Anxiety aroused by repetitive, intrusive thoughts, images,
Disorder (OCD) or impulses, often leading to compulsive ritual behaviors
CHILDHOOD DEPRESSION
- Mood disorder characterized by such symptoms as a prolonged sense of Chapter 11: Physical and Cognitive Development in
friendlessness, inability to have fun or concentrate, fatigue, extreme activity or apathy,
feelings of worthlessness, weight change, physical complaints, and thoughts of death Adolescence
or suicide
ADOLESCENCE
- Developmental transition between childhood and adulthood entailing major physical,
Treatment Technique PUBERTY
cognitive, and psychosocial changes.

- It is a process by which a person attains sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce.
Treatments Descriptions - Puberty involves dramatic biological changes. These changes are part of a long,
Individual Psychotherapy Psychological treatment in which a therapist sees a complex process of maturation that begins even before birth, and their psychological
troubled person one-on-one ramifications may continue into adulthood
Family Therapy Psychological treatment in which a therapist sees the PRIMARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS
whole family together to analyze patterns of family - Organs directly related to reproduction, which enlarge and mature during
functioning adolescence.
Behavior Therapy Therapeutic approach using principles of learning theory - In the female, the sex organs include the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, clitoris, and
to encourage desired behaviors or eliminate undesired vagina. In the male, they include the testes, penis, scrotum, seminal vesicles, and
ones; also called behavior modification prostate gland. During puberty, these organs enlarge and mature
Art Therapy Therapeutic approach that allows a person to express SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS
troubled feelings without words, using a variety of art - Physiological signs of sexual maturation (such as breast development and growth of
materials and media body hair) that do not involve the sex organs.
Play Therapy Therapeutic approach that uses play to help a child cope - Other secondary sex characteristics are changes in the voice and skin texture,
with emotional distress muscular development, and the growth of pubic, facial, axillary, and body hair
Drug Therapy Administration of drugs to treat emotional disorders SIGNS OF PUBERTY
- first external signs of puberty typically are breast tissue and pubic hair in girls and
RESILENCE enlargement of the testes in boys
RESILIENT CHILDREN - Pubic hair, at first straight and silky, eventually becomes coarse, dark, and curly. It
appears in different patterns in males and females. Adolescent boys are usually happy
- Children who weather adverse circumstances, function well despite challenges or
to see hair on the face and chest; but girls are generally dismayed at the appearance of
threats, or bounce back from traumatic events
even a slight amount of hair on the face or around the nipples, though this, too, is
PROTECTIVE FACTORS normal
- Influences that reduce the impact of potentially negative influences and tend to
THE ADOLESCENT GROWTH SPURT
predict positive outcomes
- Sharp increase in height and weight that precedes sexual maturity
- The two most important protective factors that help children and adolescents
- a rapid increase in height, weight, and muscle and bone growth that occurs during
overcome stress and contribute to resilience are good family relationships and
puberty—generally begins in girls between ages 9½ and 14½ (usually at about 10)
cognitive functioning
and in boys, between 10½ and 16 (usually at 12 or 13).
Other frequently cited protective factors include the following
- The child’s temperament or personality: Resilient children are adaptable, friendly,
well liked, independent, and sensitive to others. They are competent and have high
SIGNS OF SEXUAL MATURITY: SPERM PRODUCTION AND MENSTRUATION
self-esteem. When under stress, they can regulate their emotions by shifting attention SPERMACHE
to something else. - Boy’s first ejaculation
- Compensating experiences: A supportive school environment or successful - occurs at an average age of 13. A boy may wake up to find a wet spot or a hardened,
experiences in studies, sports, or music or with other children or adults can help make dried spot on the sheets—the result of a nocturnal emission, an involuntary
up for a destructive home life ejaculation of semen (commonly referred to as a wet dream).
MENARCHE
- Girl’s firs menstruation
- occurs fairly late in the sequence of female development; its normal timing can vary
from age 10 to 16½

BODY IMAGE
- one’s perceptions, thoughts, and feelings about one’s body
ANOREXIA NERVOSA
- or self-starvation, an eating disorder characterized by self-starvation
- an abnormally low body weight, an intense fear of gaining weight and a distorted
perception of weight
BULIMIA NERVOSA
- Eating disorder in which a person regularly eats huge quantities of food and then
purges the body by laxatives, induced vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise
- A person with bulimia regularly goes on huge, short-lived eating binges (2 hours or
less) and then may try to purge the high caloric intake through self-induced vomiting,
strict dieting or fasting, excessively vigorous exercise, or laxatives, enemas, or
diuretics.
BINGE EATING DISORDER
- Eating disorder in which a person loses control over eating and binges huge quantities
of food
- People with BED may eat a lot of food in a short amount of time, even if they aren’t
hungry. Emotional stress or destress often plays a role and might trigger a period of
binge eating.
USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS
SUBSTANCE ABUSE
- Is harmful use of alcohol or other drugs
- Abuse can lead to substance dependence, or addiction, which may be physiological,
psychological, or both and is likely to continue into adulthood
ALCOHOL, MARIJUANA, AND TOBACCO
- Alcohol is a potent, mind-altering drug with major effects on physical, emotional, and
social wellbeing
- Marijuana is the most widely used illicit drug in the United States. Aside from its own
ill effects, marijuana may lead to other addictions
- E-cigarettes were the most commonly used form of tobacco among middle and high
school students (Signh et al., 2016). This is troubling, as there is reason to suspect that
e-cigarette users may eventually graduate to cigarettes
ASPECTS OF COGNITIVE MATURATION
PIAGET’S STAGE OF FORMAL OPERATIONS
- Adolescents enter what Piaget called the highest level of cognitive development—
formal operations—when they move away from their reliance on concrete, real-
world stimuli and develop the capacity for abstract thought
HYPOTHETICAL-DEDUCTIVE REASONING
- Ability, believed by Piaget, to accompany the stage of formal operations, to develop,
consider, and test hypotheses.
- involves a methodical, scientific approach to problem solving, and it characterizes
formal operations thinking. It involves the ability to develop, consider, and test
hypotheses, and the young person can be compared to a scientist exploring a problem.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
KOHLBERG’S LEVELS AND STAGES
Level I: People act under external controls. They obey rules to avoid
punishment or reap rewards, or they act out of self-interest. This level
Preconventional
is typical of children ages 4 to 10
Morality
Level II: (or morality of conventional role conformity). People have
Conventional internalized the standards of authority figures. They are concerned
Morality about being “good,” pleasing others, and maintaining the social order.
This level is typically reached after age 10; many people never move
beyond it, even in adulthood
Level III: (or morality of autonomous moral principles). People recognize
Postconventional conflicts between moral standards and make their own judgments on
Morality the basis of principles of right, fairness, and justice. People generally
do not reach this level of moral reasoning until at least early
adolescence, or more commonly in young adulthood, if ever
AN ETHIC OF CARE: GILLIGAN’S THEORY
- Gilligan argued that men, Kohlberg included, viewed morality in terms of justice and
fairness.
PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR
- Prosocial behavior typically increases from childhood through adolescence
- Parents play a role in this; parents who are warm, sympathetic, and use prosocial
reasoning themselves are more likely to have teens who behave in prosocial ways.
INFLUENCES ON SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT
- In adolescence, such factors as parenting practices, socioeconomic status, and the
quality of the home environment influence the course of school achievement. Other
factors include gender, ethnicity, peer influence, quality of schooling, and students’
belief in themselves.
Student Motivation and Self-Efficacy- Students high in academic self-efficacy—who believe
that they can successfully achieve academic goals—are likely to do well in school
Gender- Male and female brains show some differences in structure and organization, and
these differences tend to become more pronounced with age
Social and cultural forces that influence gender differences include the following:
• Home influences: The amount of parental involvement in children’s education affects math
performance. Parents’ gender attitudes and expectations also have an effect
• School influences: Subtle differences in the way teachers treat boys and girls, especially in math
and science classes, have been documented.
• Neighborhood influences: Boys benefit more from enriched neighborhoods and are hurt more
by deprived neighborhoods
• Women’s and men’s roles in society: help shape girls’ and boys’ choices of courses and
occupations.
• Cultural influences: Cross-cultural studies show that the size of gender differences in math
performance varies among nations and becomes greater by the end of secondary school.
• Family, Ethnicity, and Peer Influences- Family and school experiences are subject to a
phenomenon referred to as spillover, wherein experiences in different contexts influence each
other
 Chapter 12: Psychosocial Development in Adolescence OPEN NOTES FOR TYPES OF IDENTITY STATUS

THE SEARCH FOR IDENTIFY

- Identity according to Erikson is a coherent conception of the self, made up of goals,
values, and beliefs to which a person is solidly committed
- involves expectations for oneself in terms of how one should act

IDENTITY VERSUS CONFUSION

IDENTITY
- Identity involves the experiences, relationships, beliefs, values, and memories that
make up a person's subjective sense of self. This helps create a continuous self-image
that remains fairly constant even as new aspects of the self are developed or
strengthened over time. Identity provides the following:
Self-sameness: A sense of continuity within the self and in interaction with others
Uniqueness: A frame to differentiate between self and interaction with others
Psychosocial development: Mental and physical health for adolescents SEXUALITY
CONFUSION SEXUAL ORIENTATION
- Kids who are not allowed to explore and test out different identities might be left with - Focus of consistent sexual, romantic, and affectionate interest, either heterosexual,
what Erikson referred to as role confusion, which can result in the following: homosexual, or bisexual
• Being unsure of who you are and where you fit It is in adolescence that a person’s sexual orientation generally becomes more clear:
• Drifting from one job or relationship to another • Heterosexual- sexually attracted to persons of the other sex,
• Feeling disappointed and confused about your place in life • Homosexual- of the same sex,
• Bisexual - or of both sexes)
[ERIKSON BELIEVED THIS TIME-OUT PERIOD, WHICH HE CALLED PSYCHOSOCIAL MORATORIUM, WAS IDEAL FOR
THE DEVELOPMENT OF IDENTITY AND ALLOWED YOUNG PEOPLE THE OPPORTUNITY TO SEARCH FOR Transgender - is a term that refers to individuals whose biological sex at birth and gender
COMMITMENTS TO WHICH THEY COULD BE FAITHFUL] identity are not the same
Transexual - people who seek medical assistance to permanently transition to their preferred
[ADOLESCENTS WHO RESOLVE THE IDENTITY CRISIS SATISFACTORILY DEVELOP THE VIRTUE OF FIDELITY: gender
SUSTAINED LOYALTY, FAITH, OR A SENSE OF BELONGING TO A LOVED ONE, FRIENDS, OR COMPANIONS. FIDELITY Genderqueer - refer to a wide range of variable identities that may be neither fully male nor
ALSO CAN MEAN IDENTIFICATION WITH A SET OF VALUES, AN IDEOLOGY, A RELIGION, A POLITICAL MOVEMENT,
fully female
OR AN ETHNIC GROUP (ERIKSON, 1982).]

CRISIS SEXUAL IDENTITY

- term for period of conscious decision making related to identity formation - achieved by seeing oneself as a sexual being, recognizing one’s sexual orientation,
coming to terms with sexual desires, and forming romantic or sexual attachments
COMMITMENT
- term for personal investment in an occupation or system of beliefs
SEXUAL ORIENTATION
- focus on consistent sexual, romantic, and affectionate, either heterosexual,
homosexual, or bisexual
TRANSGENDER IDENTITY
Four Types of Identity Status - the psychologist sense of belonging to one gender while possessing the sexual organs
of the other
Identity Achievement Crisis leading to commitment GENDER DYSPHORIA
- when people experience significant personal distress or impaired functioning as a
Foreclosure Commitment without crisis
result of a conflict between their anatomic sex and their gender identity
Moratorium Crisis with no commitment yet SEXUAL RISK-TAKING
Identity Diffusion No commitment, no crisis - Two major concerns about adolescent sexual activity are the risks of contracting
sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and of teenage pregnancy
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STI’s)
- Infections and diseases spread by sexual contact.
- Globally, more than 1 million STIs are acquired each day (World Health Organization,
2016). Teens and young adults age 15 to 24 years acquire half of all new STIs (Centers
for Disease Control, 2018)
TEENAGE PREGNANCY AND CHILD BEARING
- Estimates are that 21 million teenage girls in developing regions of the world become
pregnant each year, as do an additional 2 million girls under the age of 15 years.
Moreover, an approximate 3.9 million girls aged 15 to 19 years receive an unsafe
abortion (World Health Organization, 2018)
RELATIONSHIPS WITH FAMILY PEERS, AND ADULT SOCIETY
ADOLESCENT REBELLION
- Pattern of emotional turmoil, characteristic of a minority of adolescents, that may involve conflict
with family, alienation from adult society, reckless behavior, and rejection of adult values
- The teenage years have been called a time of adolescent rebellion. Yet full-fledged rebellion is
relatively uncommon even in Western societies
INDIVIDUATION & FAMILY CONFLICT
- If you were like most teens, you probably listened to different music from your parents, dressed
in a different style of clothing, and felt it was reasonable to keep certain things private from
them. This process, called individuation by psychologists, begins in infancy and continues
throughout adolescence. It involves the struggle for autonomy and differentiation, or personal
identity
PARENTING STYLES & PARENTAL AUTHORITY
- Authoritative parenting continues to foster healthy psychosocial development. Authoritative
parents insist on important rules, norms, and values but are willing to listen, explain, and
negotiate.
PARENTAL MONITORING ADOLESCENTS’ SELF-DISCLOSURE
- Part of monitoring involves knowing what a teen is up to. Young people’s growing autonomy and
the shrinking areas of perceived parental authority redefine the types of behavior adolescents
are expected to disclose to parents
FAMILY STRUCTURE & ATMOSPHERE
- Conflict in the home can affect the process of individuation, and changes in marital distress or
conflict predict corresponding changes in adolescents’ adjustment
MOTHER’S EMPLOYMENT AND ECONOMIC STRESS
- Conflict in the home can affect the process of individuation, and changes in marital distress or
conflict predict corresponding changes in adolescents’ adjustment
ADOLESCENTS AND PEERS
- In childhood, most peer interactions are dyadic, or one-to-one, though larger groupings begin
to form in middle childhood.
- As children move into adolescence, the peer social system becomes more diverse. Cliques—
structured groups of friends who do things together—become more important.
- A larger type of grouping, the crowd, which does not normally exist before adolescence, is
based not on personal interactions but on reputation, image, or identity
What influences young people to engage in—or refrain from—violence or other antisocial
acts?
- BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES
- ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES
Chapter 13: Physical Development in Emerging and Young
Adulthood
EMERGING ADULTHOOD
- represents a period of time during which young adults can figure out who they are
and what they want to be
When does a person become an adult? For most people, three criteria define adulthood:
(1) accepting responsibility for oneself
(2) making independent decisions, and
(3) becoming financially independent (Arnett, 2006)
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
HEALTH STATUS AND HEALTH ISSUE
- Health may be influenced by genes, but behavioral factors—what young adults eat,
how physically active they are, and whether they smoke, drink, or use drugs—
contribute greatly to health and well-being
- Race in health also matters - Whites and Asians are the most likely to be in good
health, although whites’ health tends to decline as they age into adulthood. The worst
health prognosis is generally found for Native Americans, followed by African
Americans. Latinos generally occupy a middle position.
- Emerging and young adults – has the highest poverty rates as they tend to move
away from home and live independently, thus they also have the lowest level of health
insurance of any age group
GENETIC INFLUENCES ON HEALTH
- Mapping the human genome has enabled us to examine more clearly the genetic roots
of many disorders. The expression of any disorder—obesity, certain cancers,
asthma—is the product of an interaction between genes and environment
BEHAVIORAL INFLUENCES ON HEALTH AND FITNESS
- The link between behavior and health illustrates the interrelationship among
physical, cognitive, and emotional aspects of development. What people know about
health affects what they do, and what they do affects how they feel
Diet and Nutrition
- What people eat and how much they move their bodies affect how they look, how they
feel, and how likely they are to get sick and even die
Obesity/Overweight
- Worldwide trends indicate obesity is on the rise. Since 1975, the global obesity rate
has nearly tripled. In 2016, there were 1.9 billion overweight adults, 650 million of
whom were obese
- Much of this increase can be attributed to unintended consequences of globalization,
including increases in the availability of nutrient-poor, high-calorie processed foods
and urbanization of the environment.
EATING DISORDERS
- are a type of serious mental health condition characterized by severe disturbances in
eating behaviors and related thoughts and emotions
- The most common of the eating disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia
nervosa
Anorexia Nervosa
is an eating disorder characterized by an abnormally low body weight, an intense fear of
gaining weight and a distorted perception of weight
Bulimia Nervosa
an emotional disorder involving distortion of body image and an obsessive desire to lose
weight, in which bouts of extreme overeating are followed by depression and self-induced
vomiting, purging, or fasting
STRESS
- A growing body of research suggests that our psychological health affects our physical
health, and that high levels of chronic stress are related to a host of physical and
immunological impairments
Coping with stress are divided to two broad categories
- Emotion-focused coping consists of attempts to manage the emotions
associated with experiencing a particular event by such tactics as refusing to
think about an issue or reframing the event in a positive light
- Problem-focused coping involves addressing an issue head-on and developing
action-oriented ways of managing and changing a bad situation
SLEEP
- Many emerging and young adults often go without adequate sleep. Among college
students, family life stress, together with academic stress, is associated with high
levels of insomnia
- Chronic sleep deprivation (less than 6 hours of sleep each night for three or more
nights) can seriously worsen cognitive performance
- Sleep deprivation has been linked to depression and insomnia and sleep disturbances
also are related to the risk of postpartum depression
RISKY DRINKING
- defined as consuming more than 14 drinks a week or 4 drinks on any single day for
men and more than 7 drinks a week or 3 drinks on any single day for women
- Approximately 1 out of 4 people are risky drinkers, at risk for alcoholism and liver
disease, as well as physical, mental, and social problems as a result of their drinking
INDIRECT INFLUENCES ON HEALTH
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS AND RACE
- The connection between socioeconomic status (SES) and health has been widely
documented (Williams, Priest, & Anderson, 2016).
- Higher-income people rate their health as better and live longer than lower-income
people
- Better-educated and more affluent people tend to have healthier diets and better
preventive health care and medical treatment.
RELATIONSHIP AND HEALTH
- Social relationships seem to be vital to health and well-being. Research has identified
at least two interrelated aspects of the social environment that can promote health:
social integration and social support
Social Integration
- is active engagement in a broad range of social relationships, activities, and role
- People with wide social networks and multiple social roles are more likely to survive
heart attacks and less likely to be anxious or depressed than people with more limited social
networks and roles
Social Support
- refers to material, informational, and psychological resources derived from the social
network on which a person can rely for help in coping with stress
- In highly stressful situations, people who are in touch with others may be more likely to
eat and sleep sensibly, get enough exercise, and avoid substance abuse, and are less likely to
be distressed, anxious, depressed, or even to die
MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS
ALCOHOLISM
- Alcohol dependence, or alcoholism, is a long-term physical condition characterized
by compulsive drinking that a person is unable to control.
- From 6 to 48 hours after the last drink, alcoholics experience strong physical
withdrawal symptoms (anxiety, agitation, tremors, elevated blood pressure, and
sometimes seizures).
DRUG AND ABUSE
- As young adults settle down and take responsibility for their future, they generally
tend to cut down on drug use
- The most common habit-forming drugs include marijuana and prescription
painkillers, followed by cocaine and heroin
- Marijuana is by far the most popular illicit drug among young adults
DEPRESSION
- Depressive syndrome is an extended period of sadness along with a variety of other
symptoms such as crying and feelings of worthlessness or hopelessness
- A major depressive disorder, by contrast, is a clinical diagnosis with a specific set of
symptoms, is considered to be the most serious, and generally requires medical
intervention
- People who are diagnosed with major depressive disorder often have depressed or
irritable moods for most of the day, every day, show reduced interest in and
enjoyment of previously pleasurable activities, often either gain or lose significant
amounts of weight, have difficulties sleeping too little or too much, and often show a
variety of cognitive biases and maladaptive recurrent thoughts
SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE CRISIS
- Sexual and reproductive activities are often a prime preoccupation of emerging and
young adulthood. These natural and important functions may involve physical
concerns.
- Three such concerns are disorders related to menstruation, sexually transmitted
infections (STIs), and infertility
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS
- Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), also known as sexually transmitted diseases Schaie: A Life-Span Model of Cognitive Development
(STDs), are illnesses that are transmitted by having sex
- As the risk has been rising off for 4 years, STIs like chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis [ K. WARNER SCHAIE’S LIFE-SPAN MODEL OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT LOOKS AT THE DEVELOPING USES OF COGNITION WITHIN
all showed increases in prevalence A SOCIAL CONTEXT. THESE GOALS SHIFT FROM ACQUISITION OF INFORMATION AND SKILLS (WHAT I NEED TO KNOW) TO
PRACTICAL INTEGRATION OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS (HOW TO USE WHAT I KNOW) TO A SEARCH FOR MEANING AND PURPOSE
- As the risk has been rising off for 4 years, STIs like chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis
(WHY I SHOULD KNOW).]
all showed increases in prevalence
MENSTRUAL DISORDERS The Seven Stages Description
- Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is a disorder that produces physical discomfort and Children and adolescents acquire information and
Acquisitive stage (childhood and
emotional tension for up to 2 weeks before a menstrual period skills mainly for their own sake or as preparation
- The cause of PMS is not fully understood, but it appears to be a response to normal adolescence)
for participation in society
monthly surges of the female hormone estrogen and progesterone as well as to levels Young adults no longer acquire knowledge merely
Achieving stage (late teens or early
of the male hormone testosterone and of serotonin for its own sake; they use what they know to pursue
PMS may include the presence of cramps, but it is not the same thing, as well as it can also be confused twenties to early thirties)
with dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation, or cramps)
goals, such as career and family
- Cramps tend to affect younger women, whereas PMS is more typical in women in their thirties or Responsible stage (late thirties to Middle-age people use their minds to solve practical
older problems associated with responsibilities to others,
- Dysmenorrhea is caused by contractions of the uterus, which are set in motion by prostaglandin, a early sixties)
such as family members or employees
hormonelike substance; it can be treated with prostaglandin inhibitors, such as ibuprofen
INFERTILITY Executive stage (thirties or forties People in the executive stage are responsible for
- infertility is defined as not being able to get pregnant (conceive) after one year (or through middle age) societal systems (such as governmental or business
longer) of unprotected sex organizations) or social movements
- Women’s fertility begins to decline in their late twenties, with substantial decreases
Reorganizational stage (end of People who enter retirement reorganize their lives
during their thirties. By their forties, many women are not able to become pregnant
middle age, beginning of late and intellectual energies around meaningful
without the use of assisted reproductive technology (ART).
pursuits that take the place of paid work
- While men’s fertility is less affected by age but begins to decline in the late thirties adulthood)
Reintegrative stage (late adulthood) Older adults may be experiencing biological and
cognitive changes and tend to be more selective
BEYOND PIAGET: NEW WAYS OF THINKING
about what tasks they expend effort on. They focus
REFLECTIVE THINKING on the purpose of what they do and concentrate on
- was first defined by the American philosopher and educator John Dewey (1910/1991) tasks that have the most meaning for them.
as “active, persistent, and careful consideration” of information or beliefs
- Reflective thinkers continually question facts, draw inferences, and make connections. Near the end of life, once reintegration has been
Legacy-creating stage (advanced
In other words, they frequently and spontaneously engage in critical thinking completed (or along with it), older people may
old age)
POSTFORMAL THOUGHT create instructions for the disposition of prized
- Is the higher stage of adult cognition, that tends to emerge during early adulthood possessions, make funeral arrangements, provide
- Postformal thought is characterized by the ability to deal with inconsistency, oral histories, or write their life stories as a legacy
contradiction, and compromise for their loved ones
- postformal thinking is in some way as much a personality style as it is a mode of
thinking
Postformal thought is also relativistic STERNBERG: INSIGHT AND KNOW-HOW
- Immature thinking tends to be black and white—there is one right answer and one - An important aspect of practical intelligence is tacit knowledge: “inside
wrong one. Relativistic thought, by contrast, acknowledges that there may be more information,” “know-how,” or “savvy” that is not formally taught or openly
than one valid way of viewing an issue and that the world is made up of shades of expressed.
gray. - Tacit knowledge may include self-management (knowing how to motivate oneself and
organize time and energy), management of tasks (knowing how to write a term paper
or grant proposal), and management of others (knowing when and how to reward or
criticize subordinates)
 Chapter 14: Psychosocial Development in Emerging and
Young Adulthood
IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT IN EMERGING ADULTHOOD
RECENTERING
- Process that underlies the shift to an adult identity
- Recentering is a name for the process that underlies the shift to an adult identity. It is
the primary task of emerging adulthood. Recentering is a three-stage process in which
power, responsibility, and decision making gradually shift from the family of origin to
the independent young adult (Tanner, 2006):
• Stage 1 - the beginning of emerging adulthood, the individual is still
embedded in the family of origin, but expectations for self-reliance and self-
directedness begin to increase.
• Stage 2 - during emerging adulthood, the individual remains connected to
but no longer embedded within the family of origin
• Stage 3 - usually by age 30, the individual moves into young adulthood. This
stage is marked by independence from the family of origin (while retaining
close ties to it) and commitment to a career, a partner, and possibly children.
THE CONTEMPORARY MORATORIUM
- A fragmented, postindustrial society offers many emerging adults, little guidance and
less pressure to grow up (Heinz, 2002), and not everyone is equally up to the task
(Côté, 2006)
- Identity status research has found that only about a third of Western youth seem to go
through what Marcia named the moratorium status, a self-conscious crisis that
ideally leads to a resolution and identity achievement status
Personality Development: Four Views
Normative-Stage Models - are theoretical approaches that hold that adults
follow a basic sequence of age-related
psychosocial changes
- Theoretical models that describe psychosocial
development in terms of a definite sequence of
age-related changes.
Timing-of-Events Model - Theoretical model of personality development
that describes adult psychosocial development
as a response to the expected or unexpected
occurrence and timing of important life events
Trait Models - Theoretical models of personality development
that focus on mental, emotional,
temperamental, and behavioral traits, or
attributes
- Trait models are psychological models that
focus on the measurement and examination of
these different traits
Typological Models - Typological approach is a theoretical
approach that identifies broad personality
types, or styles
- Jack Block (1971; Block & Block, 2006) was a
pioneer in the typological approach. Typological
research seeks to complement and expand trait
research by looking at personality as a
functioning whole
NORMATIVE LIFE EVENTS
- In the timing-of-events model, commonly expected life experiences that occur at
customary times
SOCIAL CLOCK
- Set of cultural norms or expectations for the times of life when certain important
events, such as marriage, parenthood, entry into work, and retirement, should occur
EGO RESILIENCY
- Dynamic capacity to modify one’s level of ego-control in response to environmental
and contextual influences
EGO CONTROL
- Self-control and the self-regulation of impulses
FOUNDATIONS OF INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS
FRIENDSHIP
- Young adults generally have the largest friendship networks; however, friendships
during this time are often less stable than in either adolescence or later adulthood,
primarily because people in emerging adulthood relocate more frequently
- Close, supportive friendships are sometimes incorporated into family networks. These
types of friends are known as fictive kin—they are treated as family members
despite a lack of blood relationship
LOVE
- According to Robert J. Sternberg’s triangular theory of love (1995, 1998b, 2006), the
way love develops is a story. The lovers are its authors, and the story they create
reflects their personalities and their conceptions of love
Triangular theory of love is Sternberg’s theory that patterns of love hinge on the balance
among three elements: intimacy, passion, and commitment
• Intimacy - the emotional element, involves self-disclosure, which leads to connection,
warmth, and trust
• Passion - the motivational element, is based on inner drives that translate
physiological arousal into sexual desire
• Commitment - the cognitive element, is the decision to love and to stay with the
beloved

MARITAL AND NONMARITAL LIFESTYLES
SINGLE LIFE
- Some young adults stay single because they have not found the right mate; others
are single by choice. More women today are self-supporting, and there is less
social pressure to marry. At the same time, many single adults are postponing
marriage and children due to economic instability
- One pattern that has become increasingly common is that of “friends with
benefits” (FWB). FWB relationships are relationships in which there is a blend of
friendship and physical intimacy, but little commitment
GAY AND LESBIAN RELATIONSHIPS
- Forty-five years ago, same-sex couples were not legally recognized in any country
(Saez, 2011). However, shifting attitudes have led to great changes. In January
2019, same-sex marriage became legal in Austria, raising the number of countries
in which gay and lesbian adults can marry to 27. Most countries are in Western
Europe (Italy and Switzerland are exceptions) and the Americas, where
acceptance of homosexuality is high (Masci & DeSilver, 2017; Masci, Sciupac, &
Lipka, 2017).
COHABITATION
- Cohabitation is an increasingly common lifestyle in which an unmarried couple
involved in a sexual relationship live together
- can be a trial marriage, an alternative to marriage, or, in some places, almost
indistinguishable from marriage. Cohabiting relationships in the United States
tend to be less stable than marriage
Chapter 15: Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle
Adulthood
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
SENSORY AND PSYCHOMOTOR FUNCTIONING
- With increasing age, it is common for adults to experience a variety of perceptual
declines, including hearing and visual difficulties.\
Presbyopia
Presbyopia is the loss of the eye's ability to change its focus to see objects that are
near. Presbyopia generally starts to appear around age 40s and gets progressively worse
until around your late 60s
Myopia
Nearsightedness (myopia) is a common vision condition in which you can see objects
near to you clearly, but objects farther away are blurry
AGE RELATED HEARING PROBLEM
Presbycusis
- A gradual hearing loss is known as presbycusis. Presbycusis generally begins with
higher-pitched sounds less important for understanding speech and gradually extends
into lower pitches.
BASAL METABOLISM
- is the minimum amount of energy, typically measured in calories, that your body
needs to maintain vital functions while resting.
THE BRAIN IN MIDLIFE
- In general, the aging brain can be described in two ways: as working more slowly and
as having difficulty juggling multiple tasks
- Physical changes in the aging brain contribute to the declines in functioning. With
increasing age, there is a decrease in the volume of gray matter. Myelin, the fatty
sheath that lines nerve axons and helps impulses move more quickly through the
brain, also begins to break down with age. The specific location and extent of these
changes in the gray and white matter are associated with the severity of processing
slowdown and the area of cognition in which it occurs
STRUCTURAL AND SYSTEMIC CHANGES
- Changes in appearance may become noticeable during the middle years. By the fifth or
sixth decade, the skin may become less taut and smooth as the layer of fat below the
surface becomes thinner, collagen molecules more rigid, and elastin fibers more
brittle.
- Middle-aged people tend to gain weight as a result of accumulation of body fat and
lose height due to shrinkage of the intervertebral disks.
- Bone density normally peaks in the twenties or thirties. From then on, people
typically experience some bone loss as more calcium is absorbed than replaced,
causing bones to become thinner and more brittle. Bone loss accelerates in the fifties
and sixties; it occurs twice as rapidly in women as in men, sometimes leading to
osteoporosis
VITAL CAPACITY
- the maximum volume of air the lungs can draw in and expel—may begin to diminish
at about age 40 and can drop by as much as 40 percent by age 70
SEXUALITY AND REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONING
- Sexuality is not only a hallmark of youth. Although both sexes experience losses in
reproductive capacity sometime during middle adulthood—women become unable to
bear children and men’s fertility begins to decline—sexual enjoyment continues
throughout adult life.
MENOPAUSE
- is the cessation of menstruation and of ability to bear children.
- Perimenopause period of several years during which a woman experiences
physiological changes of menopause; includes first year after end of menstruation;
also called climacteric
MENOPAUSE HORMONE THERAPY (MHT) appears to be the most effective intervention for
night sweats, hot flashes, and deterioration of the urinary tract and vagina. MHT may also help
address other symptoms such as joint and muscle pains, mood swings, problems with sleep,
and sexual dysfunction.
CHANGES IN MALE SEXUAL FUNCTIONING
- Men remain fertile throughout the life span and do not go through menopause in the
same dramatic fashion as do women. Men do have a biological clock, however, and
they also experience age-associated changes
- Starting at the age 30, testosterone levels begin to decline at a rate of about 1 percent
a year, although there are wide individual variations
TESTOSTERONE REPLACEMENT THERAPIES (TRT) have been used by men for decades to
address midlife declines in testosterone, sometimes called andropause
ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION
- is defined as a persistent inability to achieve or maintain an erect enough penis for
satisfactory sexual performance
- There are multiple potential causes for ED. Diabetes, obesity, hypertension, high
cholesterol, depression, neurological disorders, and many chronic diseases have been
implicated
PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH
HYPERTENSION
- (chronically high blood pressure) is an increasingly important concern from midlife
on as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and kidney disease
- world’s leading preventable cause of early death
DIABETES
- is a disease in which the body does not produce or properly use insulin, a
hormone that converts sugar, starches, and other foods into energy needed for
daily life
TYPES OF DIABETES
MATURE-ONSET (TYPE 2 DIABETES)
- typically develops after age 30 and becomes more prevalent with age
- glucose levels rise because the cells lose their ability to use the insulin the body
produces.
- As a result, the body may try to compensate by producing too much insulin.
- People with mature-onset diabetes often do not realize they have it until they develop
such serious complications as heart disease, stroke, blindness, kidney disease, or loss
of limbs
JUVENILE-ONSET (TYPE 1 DIABETES)
- insulin-dependent, diabetes, in which the level of blood sugar rises because the body
does not produce enough insulin
BONE LOSS AND OSTEOPOROSIS
OSTEOPOROSIS
- is a condition in which the bones become thin and brittle as a result of rapid calcium
depletion
- is a major cause of broken bones in old age and can greatly affect quality of life and
even survival
MAMMOGRAPHY is the diagnostic X-ray examination of the breasts
HORMONE THERAPY (HT) is the treatment with artificial estrogen, sometimes in combination
with the hormone progesterone, to relieve or prevent symptoms caused by decline in estrogen
levels after menopause.
STRESS IN MIDLIFE
- Stress is the damage that occurs when perceived environmental demands, or
stressors, exceed a person’s capacity to cope with them
- Stress is the response to physical or psychological demands
- Stressors is the perceived environmental demands that may produce stress
FLUID INTELLIGENCE
- is the ability to solve novel problems on the fly
- Such problems require little or no previous knowledge, such as realizing that a hanger
can be used to fix a leaky toilet or discovering the pattern in a sequence of figures. It
involves perceiving relations, forming concepts, and drawing inferences.
CRYSTALIZED INTELLIGENCE
- is the ability to remember and use information acquired over a lifetime, such as
finding a synonym for a word or solving a math problem
- It is fixed, as is the structure of ice
- is measured by tests of vocabulary, general information, and responses to social
situations and dilemmas—abilities that depend largely on education and cultural
experience
Creativity - the product of particular social contexts as well as individual proclivities. With respect to
environment, creativity seems to develop from diverse experiences that weaken conventional constraints
and challenging experiences that strengthen the ability to persevere and overcome obstacles.
 IDENTITY BALANCE
Chapter 16: Psychosocial Development in Middle Adulthood - Whitbourne’s term for a tendency to balance assimilation and accommodation
- People who achieve identity balance recognize changes and respond flexibly; they
GENERATIVITY VERSUS STAGNATION seek to control what can be controlled and accept what cannot
- Erikson’s seventh stage of psychosocial development, in which the middle-aged adult
develops a concern with establishing, guiding, and influencing the next generation or
else experiences stagnation (a sense of inactivity or lifelessness)
GENERATIVITY
Dimensions of Well-being
- Erikson’s term for concern of mature adults for finding meaning through contributing
to society and leaving a legacy for future generations.
MIDLIFE CRISIS
- In some normative-crisis models, stressful life period precipitated by the review and
reevaluation of one’s past, typically occurring in the early to middle forties
- Often, changes in personality and lifestyle such as these during the early to middle
forties are attributed to what has been called a midlife crisis.
TURNING POINT
- Psychological transitions that involve significant change or transformation in the
perceived meaning, purpose, or direction of a person’s life
- Turning points may be triggered by major life events, normative changes, or a new
understanding of past experience, either positive or negative, and they may be
stressful.
MIDLIFE REVIEW
- Introspective examination that often occurs in middle age, leading to reappraisal and
revision of values and priorities
- involves recognizing the finiteness of life and can be a time of taking stock,
discovering new insights about the self, and spurring midcourse corrections in the
design and trajectory of one’s life.
EGO-RESILIENCY
- The ability to adapt flexibly and resourcefully to potential sources of stress
IDENTITY PROCESS THEORY (IPT)
- Whitbourne’s theory of identity development based on processes of assimilation and
accommodation
IDENTITY SCHEMAS
- Accumulated perceptions of the self-shaped by incoming information from intimate
relationships, work-related situations, and community and other experiences

Assimilation is the interpretation of new information via existing cognitive structures

Accommodation involves changing cognitive structures to more closely align with what is
encountered
SOCIAL CONVOY THEORY
IDENTITY ASSIMILATION
- Whitbourne’s term for effort to fit new experience into an existing self-concept
- involves holding onto a consistent sense of self in the face of new experiences that do
not fit the current understanding of the self
IDENTITY ACCOMMODATION
- Whitbourne’s term for adjusting the self-concept to fit new experience
- involves adjusting the identity schema to fit new experiences.
- Theory, proposed by Kahn and Antonucci, that people move through life surrounded
by concentric circles of intimate relationships on which they rely for assistance, well-
being, and social support
- According to social convoy theory, people move through life surrounded by social
convoys: circles of close friends and family members of varying degrees of closeness,
on whom they can rely for assistance, well-being, and social support, and to whom
they in turn also offer care, concern, and support
SOCIOEMOTIONAL SELECTIVITY THEORY
- Theory, proposed by Carstensen, that people select social contacts on the basis of the Chapter 17: Physical and Cognitive Development in Late
changing relative importance of social interaction as a source of information, as an
aid in developing and maintaining a self-concept, and as a source of emotional
well-being
Adulthood
- we select our friends based on their ability to meet our goals
AGEISM
MARITAL CAPITAL - prejudice or discrimination based on age—are making headway, thanks to the
- Financial and emotional benefits built up during a long-standing marriage, which tend growing visibility of active, healthy older adults
to hold a couple together
EMPTY NEST YOUNGEST TO OLDEST OLD
- Transitional phase of parenting following the last child’s leaving the parents’ home
- a supposedly difficult transition, especially for women, that occurs when the youngest
child leaves home
REVOLVING DOOR SYNDROME
- Tendency for young adults who have left home to return to their parents’ household
in times of financial, marital, or other trouble
- sometimes called the boomerang phenomenon
FILIAL CRISIS
- In Marcoen’s terminology, normative development of middle age, in which adults
learn to balance love and duty to their parents with autonomy within a two-way
relationship
SANDWICH GENERATION
- Middle-aged adults squeezed by competing needs to raise or launch children and to
care for elderly parents.
- may be caught in a squeeze between the competing needs of their own children and
the emerging needs of their parent
CAREGIVER BURNOUT
- Condition of physical, mental, and emotional exhaustion affecting adults who provide LONGEVITY AND AGING
continuous care for sick or aged persons LIFE EXPECTANCY
- Respite care (substitute supervised care by visiting nurses or home health aides) - Age to which a person in a particular cohort is statistically likely to live (given his or
KINSHIP CARE her current age and health status), on the basis of average longevity of a population.
- Care of children living without parents in the home of grandparents or other relatives, LONGEVITY
with or without a change of legal custody - Length of an individual’s life.
LIFE SPAN
- The longest period that members of a species can live

WHY PEOPLE AGE?

SENESCENCE
- Period of the life span marked by declines in physical functioning usually associated
with aging; begins at different ages for different people.
GENETIC-PROGRAMMING THEORIES
- Theories that explain biological aging as resulting from a genetically determined
developmental timetable.
HAYFLICK LIMIT
- Genetically controlled limit, proposed by Hayflick, on the number of times cells can
divide in members of a species.
ENDOCRINE THEORY
- According to endocrine theory, the biological clock acts through genes that control Warning Signs of Stroke
hormonal changes. Loss of muscle strength, accumulation of fat, and atrophy of organs
may be related to declines in hormonal activity
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
- According to the evolutionary theory of aging, reproductive fitness is the primary
aim of natural selection. Therefore, natural selection acts most strongly on the young,
who have many years of potential reproduction ahead of them.
VARIABLE-RATE THEORY
- Theories that explain biological aging as a result of processes that involve damage to
biological systems and that vary from person to person
WEAR-AND-TEAR THEORY
- holds that the body ages as a result of accumulated damage to the system at the
molecular level
FREE-RADICAL THEORY
- proposes that aging results from the formation of free radicals, a by-product of
metabolic processes
THE RATE-OF-LIVING THEORY
- postulates that there is a balance between metabolism, or energy use, and life span.
The faster a body’s metabolism, the shorter its life span, and vice versa (Pearl, 1928).
LIFESTYLE INFLUENCES ON HEALTH AND LONGEVITY
SURVIVAL CURVE NUTRITION
- represents the percentage of people or animals alive at various ages. - plays a large part in susceptibility to such chronic illnesses as atherosclerosis, heart
disease, and diabetes as well as functional and activity limitations.
PERIODONTAL DISEASE
PHYSICAL CHANGES: SENSORY AND PSYCHOMOTOR FUNCTIONING
- is a chronic inflammation of the gums caused by the bacteria in plaque. It can result in
RESERVE CAPACITY tender or bleeding gums and eventual tooth loss
- Ability of body organs and systems to put forth 4 to 10 times as much effort as usual
under acute stress; also called organ reserve
MENTAL BEHAVIORS AND BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS
VISION
DEPRESSION
- Older eyes need more light to see, are more sensitive to glare, and may have trouble
- Depression (major depressive disorder) is a common and serious medical illness that
locating and reading signs
negatively affects how you feel, the way you think and how you act
CATARACTS
DEMENTIA
- Are cloudy or opaque areas in the lens of the eye, are common in older adults and
- Dementia is the general term for physiologically caused cognitive and behavioral
eventually cause blurred vision
decline sufficient to interfere with daily activities.
GLAUCOMA
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
- Is irreversible damage to the optic nerve caused by increased pressure in the eye.
Symptoms
- Glaucoma can be treated with eye drops, pills, or surgery
- The classic symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease are memory impairment, deterioration
STRENGTH, ENDURANCE, BALANCE, AND REACTION TIME of language, and deficits in visual and spatial processing.
- Generally, aging results in a variety of changes related to physical abilities, including Causes and Risk Factors
increases in body fat and declines in muscle strength, aerobic capacity, flexibility, and - Accumulation of an abnormal protein called beta amyloid peptide appears to be the
agility. main culprit contributing to the development of Alzheimer’s Disease.
FUNCTIONAL FITNESS TRAINING
- refers to exercises or activities that improve daily activity.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
- Intelligence test for adults that yields verbal and performance scores as well
as a combined score.
 Memory and Aging Chapter 18: Psychosocial Development in Late Adulthood
Sensory Memory Initial, brief, temporary storage of sensory information
(short-term memory) EGO INTEGRITY VS DESPAIR
Working Memory Short-term storage of information being actively processed - According to Erikson, the eighth and final stage of psychosocial development, in which
(short-term memory) people in late adulthood either achieve a sense of integrity of the self by accepting the
lives they have lived, and thus accept death, or yield to despair that their lives cannot
Episodic Memory Long-term memory of specific experiences or events, linked to time
be relived
(long-term memory) and place
COPING
Semantic Memory Long-term memory of general factual knowledge, social customs,
- Adaptive thinking or behavior aimed at reducing or relieving stress that arises from
(long-term memory) and language
harmful, threatening, or challenging conditions
Procedural Memory Long-term memory of motor skills, habits, and ways of doing things, COGNITIVE-APPRAISAL MODEL
(long-term memory) which can be recalled without conscious - Model of coping, proposed by Lazarus and Folkman, that holds that, on the basis of
effort; sometimes called implicit memory continuous appraisal of their relationship with the environment, people choose
appropriate coping strategies to deal with situations that tax their normal resources
TIP-OF-THE-TONGUE (TOT) PHENOMENON - people respond to stressful or challenging situations on the basis of two types of
- occurs in people of all ages but becomes more common in late adulthood. Presumably, analyses
the TOT phenomenon results from a failure in working memory PROBLEM-FOCUSED COPING
- involves the use of instrumental, or action-oriented, strategies to eliminate, manage,
WISDOM or improve a stressful condition
- has been defined as “exceptional breadth and depth of knowledge about the - This type of coping is more common when a person sees a realistic chance to change
conditions of life and human affairs and reflective judgment about the application of the situation
this knowledge - In the cognitive-appraisal model, coping strategy directed toward eliminating,
managing, or improving a stressful situation
EMOTION-FOCUSED COPING
- involves attempting to manage the emotional response to a stressful situation to
relieve its physical or psychological impact.
- People are more likely to use this coping strategy when they conclude that little or
nothing can be done about the situation itself
- In the cognitive-appraisal model, coping strategy directed toward managing the
emotional response to a stressful situation so as to lessen its physical or psychological
impact
DISENGAGEMENT THEORY
- Theory of aging that holds that successful aging is characterized by mutual
withdrawal of the older person and society
- a normal part of aging involves a gradual reduction in social involvement and greater
preoccupation with the self
ACTIVITY THEORY
- Theory of aging that holds that to age successfully a person must remain as active as
possible
- the more active older people remain, the better they age
CONTINUITY THEORY
- people’s need to maintain a connection between past and present is emphasized, and
activity is viewed as important, not for its own sake but because it represents
continuation of a previous lifestyle
- Theory of aging, described by Atchley, that holds that in order to age successfully
people must maintain a balance of continuity and change in both the internal and
external structures of their lives
 Chapter 19: Dealing with Death and Bereavement
THANATOLOGY
SELECTIVE OPTIMIZATION WITH COMPENSATION (SOC) - Study of death and dying
- involves developing abilities that allow for maximum gain, as well as developing CARE FOR THE DYING
abilities that compensate for decline and could lead to loss - Hospice Care is personal, patient- and family-centered, compassionate care for the
- Enhancing overall cognitive functioning by using stronger abilities to compensate terminally ill
for those that have weakened - Hospice facilities generally provide palliative care, which includes relief of pain and
According to SOC, older adults conserve their resources by: suffering, control of symptoms, alleviation of stress, and attempts to maintain a
satisfactory quality of life
• Selecting fewer and more meaningful activities or goals.
TERMINAL DROP
• Optimizing, or making the most of, the resources they have to achieve their goals.
- or terminal decline, refers specifically to a widely observed decline in cognitive
• Compensating for losses by using resources in alternative ways to achieve their goals abilities shortly before death, even when factors such as demographics and health are
controlled for
AGING IN PLACE - A frequently observed decline in cognitive abilities near the end of life
- Remaining in one’s own home, with or without assistance, in later life.
- Most older adults in industrialized countries prefer to stay in their own homes and
communities Confronting One’s Own Death
Denial (“This can’t be happening to me!”)
Anger (“Why me?”)
Bargaining for Extra Time (“If I can only live to see my daughter
married, I won’t ask for anything more”)
Depression
Acceptance

PATTERNS OF GRIEF
Grief
- the emotional response that generally follows closely on the heels of death
- Emotional response experienced in the early phases of bereavement
Bereavement
- is a response to the loss of someone to whom a person feels close. But bereavement is
not just an event, and it is not just grief—it is also a process of adjustment
Grief Work
- the working out of psychological issues connected with grief, often takes the following
path—though, as with Kübler-Ross’s stages
- Working out of psychological issues connected with grief

Grief Work Stages

Shock and Disbelief
Preoccupation with the
memory of the Dead Person
Immediately following a death, survivors often feel lost
and confused.
As awareness of the loss sinks in, the initial numbness
gives way to overwhelming feelings of sadness and
frequent crying
last 6 months to 2 years or so, the survivor tries to come
to terms with the death but cannot yet accept it. These
 experiences diminish with time, though they may recur—
perhaps for years.
Resolution The final stage has arrived when the bereaved person
renews interest in everyday activities
Memories of the dead person bring fond feelings mingled
with sadness rather than sharp pain and longing

EUTHANASIA
- Means GOOD DEATH
- is intended to end suffering or to allow a terminally ill person to die with dignity
PASSIVE EUTHANASIA
- withholding or discontinuing treatment that might extend the life of a terminally ill
patient, such as medication, life support systems, or feeding tubes.
- Many people would characterize turning off life support systems as passive
euthanasia, although such cases are complicated by the fact that brain dead people are
considered legally dead even if their heart continues to beat
ACTIVE EUTHANASIA
- sometimes called mercy killing
- involves action taken directly or deliberately to shorten a life, and it is generally illegal
ADVANCE DIRECTIVE
- Document specifying the type of care wanted by the maker in the event of an
incapacitating or terminal illness
DURABLE POWER OF ATTORNEY
- Legal instrument that appoints an individual to make decisions in the event of another
person’s incapacitation
ASSISTED SUICIDE
- Suicide in which a physician or someone else helps a person take his or her own life.