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Chapter 2 Barlow AND Durand

BS Psychology (Cavite State University)

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CHAPTER 2 An Integrative causal model might hold that

Approach to Psychopathology. schizophrenia or a phobia is caused
by a chemical imbalance or by
Multidimensional integrative
growing up surrounded by
Approach - Approach to the study of overwhelming conflicts among family
psychopathology that holds members. In psychology occasionally,
psychological disorders as always but most scientists and clinicians
being the products of multiple believe abnormal behavior results
interacting causal factors. from multiple influences and
psychopathology, we still encounter
* Biological dimensions
this type of thinking This perspective
- include causal factors from the fields on causality is systemic, which
of genetics and neuroscience. derives from the word system; it
implies that any particular influence
* Psychological dimensions - include
contributing to psychopathology
causal factors from behavioral and
cannot be considered out of context.
cognitive processes, including learned
Context, in this case, is the biology
helplessness, social learning, prepared
and behavior of the individual, as well
learning, and even unconscious
as the cognitive, emotional, social,
processes (in a different guise than in
and cultural environment, because any
the days of Sigmund Freud).
one component of the system
* Emotional influences - contribute inevitably affects the other
in a variety of ways to components. This is a
psychopathology, as do social and multidimensional model.
interpersonal influences.
Theorists have abandoned the notion
* developmental influences - figure
that any one factor can explain
in any discussion of causes of
abnormal behavior; they favor an
psychological disorders. You will
integrative model. Match each of the
become familiar with these areas as
following scenarios to its most likely
they relate to psychopathology and
influence or influences: (a)
learn about some of the latest
behavioral, (b) biological, (c)
developments relevant to
emotional, (d) social, and (e)
psychological disorders.
developmental.
* To say that psychopathology is
caused by a physical abnormality or 1. The fact that some phobias are
by conditioning is to accept a linear or more common than
one-dimensional model, which others (such as fear of heights and
attempts to trace the origins of snakes) and may have
behavior to a single cause. A linear

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contributed to the survival of the
species in the past
suggests that phobias may be
genetically prewired. This
is evidence for which influence?
biological
2. Jan’s husband, Jinx, was an
unemployed jerk who spent
his life chasing women other than his
wife. Jan, happily divorced for years,
cannot understand why the smell of
Jinx’s brand of aftershave causes her
to become nauseated. Which
influence best explains her response?
behavioral
3. Nathan, age 16, finds it more
difficult than his 7-year-old sister to
adjust to his parents’ recent
separation. This may be explained by
what influences? social
4. A traumatic ride on a Ferris wheel
at a young age was most likely to
have been the initial cause of
Juanita’s fear
of heights. Her strong emotional
reaction to heights is likely to
maintain or even increase her fear.
The initial development of the phobia
is likely a result of developmental
influences; however, emotional
influences are likely perpetuating the
phobia.
Genetic Contributions
Psychopathology
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Genes - are long molecules of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) at
various locations on chromosomes,
within the cell nucleus.
Huntington’s disease - a
degenerative brain disease that
appears in early to middle age, usually
the early 40s. This disease has been
traced to a genetic defect that causes
deterioration in a specific area of the
brain, the basal ganglia. It causes
broad changes in personality,
cognitive functioning, and,
particularly, motor behavior,
including involuntary shaking or
jerkiness throughout the body.
phenylketonuria (PKU) - which can
result inintellectual disability
(previously called “mental
retardation”). This disorder, present at
birth, is caused by the inability of the
body to metabolize (break down)
phenylalanine, a chemical compound
found in many foods.
*Like Huntington’s disease, PKU is
caused by a defect in a single gene,
with little contribution from other
genes or the environmental
background. PKU is inherited when
both parents are carriers of the gene
and pass it on to the child.
to Fortunately,
researchers have discovered a way to
correct this disorder: We can change
the way the environment interacts
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with and affects the genetic dominant gene - is one of a pair of

expression of this disorder. genes that strongly influences a
Specifically, by detecting PKU early particular trait, and we need only one
enough (which is now routinely of them to determine, for example,
done), we can simply restrict our eye color or hair color.
the amount of phenylalanine in the
baby’s diet until the child develops to recessive gene - by contrast, must be
the point where a normal diet does not paired with another (recessive) gene
harm the brain, usually 6 or 7 years of to determine a trait. Otherwise, it
age. won’t have any effect. Gene
The Nature of Genes dominance occurs when one member
of a gene pair is consistently
* We have known for a long time that expressed over the
each normal human cell has 46 other (for example, a brown-eyed
chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. gene is dominant over a blue - eyed
One chromosome in each pair comes gene).
from the father and one from the
mother. We can see these Most of the time, predictions are not
chromosomes through a microscope, so simple. Much of our development
and we can sometimes tell when one and, interestingly, most of our
is faulty and predict what problems it behavior, our personality, and even
will cause. our intelligence quotient (IQ) score
are probably polygenic—that is,
* The first 22 pairs of chromosomes influenced by many genes, each
provide programs or directions for the contributing only a tiny effect, all of
development of the body and brain, which, in turn, may be influenced by
and the last pair, called the sex the environment. And because the
chromosomes, determines an human genome—an individual’s
individual’s sex. In females, both complete set of genes—consists of
chromosomes in the 23rd pair are more than 20,000 genes (U.S.
called X chromosomes. In males, the Department of Energy Office of
mother contributes an X chromosome Science, 2009), polygenic interactions
but the father contributes a Y can be quite complex.
chromosome. This one difference is
responsible for the variance in Quantitative genetics - basically
biological sex. Abnormalities in the sums up all the tiny effects across
sex chromosomal pair can cause many genes without necessarily
ambiguous sexual characteristics. telling us which genes are responsible
for which effects.

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Molecular genetics - focuses on according to the diathesis–stress

examining the actual structure of
genes with increasingly advanced
technologies such as DNA
microarrays; these technologies allow
scientists to analyze thousands of
genes at once and identify broad
networks of genes that may be
contributing to a particular trait.
* Eric Kandel speculated that the
process of learning affects more than
behavior. He suggested that the very
genetic structure of cells may change
as a result of learning if genes that
were inactive or dormant interact with
the environment in such a way that
they become active. In other words,
the environment may occasionally
turn on certain genes. This type of
mechanism may lead to changes in
the number of receptors at the end of
a neuron, which,
in turn, would affect biochemical
functioning in the brain.
diathesis–stress model - individuals
inherit tendencies to express certain
traits or behaviors, which may then be
activated under conditions of stress.
Each inherited tendency is a
diathesis,
which means, literally, a condition
that makes someone susceptible to
developing a disorder. When the right
kind of life event, such as a certain
type of stressor, comes along, the
disorder develops. For example,
model, Judy inherited a tendency to
faint at the sight of blood. This
tendency is the diathesis, or
vulnerability.
chemical transporter - affects the
transmission of serotonin in the brain.
Serotonin - one of the
neurotransmitters we will talk about
later in the chapter, is particularly
implicated in depression and related
disorders.
Alleles - the long allele and the short
allele. There was reason to believe,
from prior work with animals, that
individuals with at least two copies of
the long allele (LL) were able to cope
better with stress than individuals
with two copies of the short allele
(SS).
* Because the investigators have been
recording stressful life events in these
individuals most of their lives, they
were able to test this relationship. In
people with two S alleles, the risk for
having a major depressive episode
doubled if they had at least four
stressful life events, compared with
participants experiencing four
stressful events who had two L
alleles. But the interesting finding
occurs when we look at the childhood
experience of these individuals. In
people with the SS alleles, severe and
stressful maltreatment during
childhood more than doubled their

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risks of depression in adulthood more likely to be involved in minor

compared with those individuals accidents that would result in their
carrying the SS alleles who were not seeing blood. In other words, they
maltreated or abused (63% may be accident prone because they
versus 30%). For individuals carrying are continually rushing to complete
the LL alleles, on the other hand, things or to get to places without
stressful childhood experiences did regard for their physical safety. These
not affect the incidence of depression people, then, might have a genetically
in adulthood; 30% of this group determined tendency to create the
became depressed whether they had very environmental risk factors that
experienced stressful childhoods or trigger a genetic vulnerability to
not. Therefore, unlike this SS group, blood–injection–injury phobia.
depression in the LL allele group
seems related to stress in their recent cross-fostering - a rat pup born to
past rather than childhood one mother is assigned to another
experiences. This study was very mother for rearing. They first
important in demonstrating clearly demonstrated, as had many other
that neither genes nor life experiences investigators, that maternal behavior
(environmental events) can solely affected how the young rats tolerated
explain the onset of a disorder such as stress. If the mothers were calm and
depression. It takes a complex supportive, their rat pups were less
interaction of the two factors. fearful and better able to tolerate
stress. But we don’t know if this
gene–environment correlation effect results from genetic influences
model or reciprocal gene– or from being raised by calm mothers.
environment model psychologists This is where cross-fostering comes
have found the web of in. Francis took some newly born rat
interrelationships between genes and pups of fearful and easily stressed
environment to be even more mothers and placed them for rearing
complex. with calm mothers. Other young rats
Some evidence now indicates that remained with their easily stressed
genetic endowment may increase the mothers. With this interesting
probability that an individual will scientific twist demonstrated that
experience stressful life events. calm and supportive behavior by the
For example, people with a genetic mothers could be passed down
vulnerability to develop a certain through generations of rats
disorder, such as blood–injection– independent of genetic influences,
injury phobia, may also have a because rats born to easily stressed
personality trait—let’s say mothers but reared by calm
impulsiveness— that makes them mothers grew up more calm and

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supportive. The authors concluded, 4. False. The idea that individuals

these findings suggest that individual may have a genetic endowment to
differences in the expression of genes increase the probability that they will
in brain regions that regulate stress experience stressful life events and
reactivity can be transmitted from one therefore trigger a vulnerability is in
generation to the accordance with the diathesis–stress
next through behavior. The results model.
suggest that the mechanism for this
pattern of inheritance involves 5. False. Environmental events alone
differences in maternal care. influence the development of our
behavior and personalities.
Epigenetics - stress, nutrition, or
other factors can affect this Neuroscience - knowing how the
epigenome, which is then nervous system and, especially, how
immediately passed down to the next the brain works is central to any
generation and maybe for several understanding of our behavior,
generations. emotions and cognitive processes.

The human nervous system includes

Determine whether these statements
relating to the genetic contributions of
psychopathology are true (T) or false
(F).
1. False. The first 20 pairs of
chromosomes program the
development of the body and brain.
2. False. No individual genes have
been identified that cause any major
psychological disorders.
3. True. According to the diathesis–
stress model, people inherit a
vulnerability to express certain traits
or behaviors that may be activated
under certain stress conditions.
the central nervous system, consisting
of the brain and the spinal cord, and
the peripheral nervous system,
consisting of the somatic nervous
system and the autonomic nervous
system.
The Central Nervous System
central nervous system processes all
information received from our sense
organs and reacts as necessary. It sorts
out what is relevant, such as a certain
taste or a new sound, from what isn’t,
such as a familiar view or ticking
clock; checks the memory banks to
determine why the information is
relevant; and implements the right
reaction, whether it is to answer a
simple question or to play a Mozart

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sonata. This is a lot of exceedingly Neurotransmitters - the biochemical

complex work. that are released from the axon of one
neuron and transmit the impulse to the
spinal cord is part of the central dendrite receptors of another neuron.
nervous system, but its primary
function is to facilitate the sending of Glia - another type of cell that
messages to and from the brain, which comprises the nervous system.
is the other major component of the
central nervous system (CNS) and the Major neurotransmitters relevant to
most complex organ in the body. psychopathology include
norepinephrine (also known as
Neurons - transmit information noradrenaline), serotonin, dopamine,
throughout the nervous system. gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA),
and glutamate.
* The typical neuron contains a
central cell body with two kinds of * For example, reduced levels of
branches. One kind of branch is called GABA were initially thought to be
a dendrite. associated with excessive anxiety.
Early research linked increases in
Dendrites - have numerous receptors dopamine activity to schizophrenia.
that receive messages in the form of Other early research found
chemical impulses from other nerve correlations between depression and
cells, which are converted into high levels of norepinephrine and,
electrical impulses. possibly, low levels of serotonin.
However, more recent research,
Axon - transmits these impulses to described later in this chapter,
other neurons. Any one nerve cell indicates that these early
may interpretations were too simplistic. In
have multiple connections to other view of their importance, we return to
neurons. the subject of neurotransmitters
shortly.
* The central nervous system, in
contrast, must organize every facet of The Structure of the Brain
our existence. Having an overview of the brain is
useful because many structures
synaptic cleft - the space between the described here are later mentioned in
axon of one neuron and the dendrite the context of specific disorders.
of another. One way to view the brain is to see it
in two parts the brain stem and the
forebrain.

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stem. Some anatomists even consider

brain stem is the lower and more the thalamus and hypothalamus
ancient part of the brain. to be parts of the forebrain.

- found in most animals, this structure limbic system - means border, so

handles most of the essential named because it is located around
automatic functions, such as the edge of the center of the brain.
breathing, sleeping, and moving The limbic system, which figures
around in a coordinated way. prominently in much of
psychopathology, includes such
Hindbrain - contains the medulla, structures as the hippocampus (sea
the pons, and the cerebellum. horse), cingulate gyrus (girdle),
septum (partition), and amygdala
- regulates many automatic activities, (almond), all of which are named for
such as breathing, the pumping action their approximate shapes.
of the heart (heartbeat), and digestion.
- helps regulate our emotional
Cerebellum – controls motor
experiences and expressions and, to
coordination, and recent research
some extent, our ability to learn and
suggests that abnormalities in the
to control our impulses. It is also
cerebellum may be associated with
involved with the basic drives of sex,
the psychological disorder autism,
aggression, hunger, and thirst.
although the connection with motor
coordination is not clear.

Midbrain – coordinates movement The basal ganglia, also at the base of

with sensory input and contains parts
of the reticular activating system,
which contributes to processes of
arousal and tension, such as whether
we are awake or asleep.
the forebrain, include the caudate
(tailed) nucleus. Because damage to
these structures may make us change
our posture or twitch or shake, they
are believed to control motor activity.

At the top of the brain stem are the cerebral cortex - largest part of the
thalamus and hypothalamus, which forebrain.
are involved broadly with regulating
behavior and emotion. These - contains more than 80% of all
structures function primarily as a neurons in the central nervous system.
relay between the forebrain and the
remaining lower areas of the brain - provides us with our distinctly

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human qualities, allowing us to look * These three lobes, located toward

to the future and plan, to reason, and the back (posterior) of the brain, work
to create. The cerebral cortex is together to process sight, touch,
divided into two hemispheres. hearing, and other signals from our
Although the hemispheres look alike senses.
structurally
and operate relatively independently The frontal lobe is the most
(both are capable of perceiving, interesting from the point of view of
thinking, and remembering), recent psychopathology. The front (or
research indicates that each has anterior) of the frontal lobe is called
different specialties. the prefrontal cortex and this is the
area responsible for higher cognitive
The left hemisphere seems to be functions such as thinking and
chiefly responsible for verbal and reasoning, planning for the future, as
other cognitive processes. well as long-term memory. This area
of the brain synthesizes all
right hemisphere seems to be better at information received from other parts
perceiving the world around us and of the brain and decides how to
creating images. respond. It is what
enables us to relate to the world
*The hemispheres may play around us and the people in it—to
differential roles in specific behave as social animals. When
psychological disorders. Each studying areas of the brain for clues to
hemisphere consists of four separate psychopathology, most researchers
areas, or lobes: temporal, parietal, focus on the frontal lobe of the
occipital, and frontal. Each is cerebral cortex, as well as on the
associated with different processes. limbic system and the basal ganglia.
temporal lobe - is associated with
recognizing various sights and sounds The Peripheral Nervous System
and with long-term memory storage,
peripheral nervous system -
parietal lobe - is associated with coordinates with the brain stem to
recognizing various sensations of make sure the body is working
touch and monitoring body properly.
positioning. - components are the somatic nervous
system and the autonomic nervous
occipital lobe - is associated with system.
integrating and making sense of
various visual inputs. somatic nervous system - controls
the

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muscles, so damage in this area might Pituitary gland - is a master gland

make it difficult for us to engage in that produces a variety of regulatory
any voluntary movement, including hormones.
talking.
gonadal glands - produce sex
autonomic nervous system - hormones such as estrogen and
includes the sympathetic nervous testosterone.
system and parasympathetic nervous
system. Psychoneuroendocrinology -
publishes papers dealing with the
- primary duties of this system are to interrelated disciplines of psychology,
regulate the cardiovascular system neurobiology, endocrinology,
(for example, the heart and blood immunology, neurology, and
vessels) and the endocrine system (for psychiatry, with an emphasis on
example, the pituitary, adrenal, multidisciplinary studies aiming at
thyroid, and gonadal glands) and to integrating these disciplines in terms
perform various other functions, of either basic research or clinical
including aiding digestion and implications. One of the main goals is
regulating body temperature. to understand how a variety of
psychobiological factors interact in
endocrine system - works a bit the expression of the stress response
differently from other systems in the as it relates to the development and/or
body. maintenance of neuropsychiatric
illnesses.
- is closely related to the immune
system; it is also implicated in a sympathetic nervous system - is
variety of disorders. primarily responsible for mobilizing
the body during times of stress or
Hormone – chemical messenger that danger by rapidly activating the
releases directly into the bloodstream. organs and glands under its control.
adrenal glands - produce epinephrine When the sympathetic division goes
(also called adrenaline) in response to on alert, three things happen. The
stress, as well as salt regulating heart beats faster, thereby increasing
hormones. the flow of blood to the muscles;
respiration increases, allowing more
thyroid gland - produces thyroxine, oxygen to get
which facilitates energy metabolism into the blood and brain; and the
and growth. adrenal glands are stimulated. All
three changes help mobilize us for
action. When you read in the

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newspaper that a woman lifted a * abnormal activity of the

heavy object to free a neurotransmitter serotonin is often
trapped child, you can be sure her described as causing depression, and
sympathetic nervous system was abnormalities in the neurotransmitter
working overtime. This system dopamine have been implicated in
mediates a substantial part of our schizophrenia.
“emergency” or “alarm” reaction.
agonists - increase the activity of a
parasympathetic system - balance neurotransmitter by mimicking
the sympathetic system. its effects.

- takes over after the sympathetic inverse agonists - decrease, or block,

nervous system has been active for a a neurotransmitter.
while, normalizing our arousal and
facilitating the storage of energy by - produce effects opposite to those
helping the digestive process. produced by the neurotransmitter.

hypothalamic–pituitary reuptake - the reabsorption of a

adrenocortical axis, or HPA axis secreted substance by the cell that
- may be involved in this process, originally produced and secreted it.
particularly stress hormones known as The process of reuptake, for example,
glucocorticoids and primarily cortisol. affects serotonin.

- regulated to ensure that the body can Two types of neurotransmitters,

respond quickly to stressful events monoamines and amino acids, have
and return to a normal state just as been most studied in regard to
rapidly. The main determinants of psychopathology. These are
HPA axis activity are genetic considered the “classic”
background, early-life environment, neurotransmitters because they are
and current life stress. synthesized in the nerve.
Neurotransmitters in the monoamine
- cortical part of the adrenal glands class include norepinephrine (also
also produces the stress hormone known as noradrenaline), serotonin,
cortisol. and dopamine. Amino-acid
neurotransmitters - carry messages neurotransmitters include gamma-
from one neuron to another continue aminobutyric acid (GABA) and
to receive intense attention from glutamate.
psychopathologists.

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Glutamate - is an excitatory from a common additive in Chinese

transmitter that “turns on” many food referred to as
different neurons, leading to action. MSG. MSG stands for monosodium
glutamate and can increase the
gamma-aminobutyric acid/GABA - amount of glutamate in the body,
inhibit (or regulate) the transmission causing headaches, ringing in the ears,
of information and action potentials. or other physical symptoms in some
people. We return to some exciting
Glutamate and GABA – called as new findings involving
the chemical brothers. glutamatespecific receptors when we
discuss new treatments for anxiety.
- operate relatively independently at a
molecular level, but the relative benzodiazepines - or minor
balance of each in a cell will tranquilizers, makes it easier
determine whether the neuron is for GABA molecules to attach
activated (fires) or not. themselves to the receptors of
specialized neurons.
- reduces postsynaptic activity.
Serotonin/5-hydroxytryptamine
- its best-known effect is to reduce (5HT) - the monoamine category of
anxiety. neurotransmitters, along with
norepinephrine and dopamine.
- reduce overall arousal somewhat and
to temper our emotional responses. - is believed to influence a great deal
of our behavior, particularly the way
- reduce levels of anger, hostility, we process information.
aggression, and perhaps even positive
emotional states such as eager - was genetically influenced
anticipation and pleasure, making dysregulation
GABA a generalized inhibiting in this system that contributed to
neurotransmitter, much as glutamate depression.
has a generalized excitatory function.
- regulates our behavior, moods, and
* Overactivity of the glutamate thought processes.
system could literally burn out
sections of the nervous system in a *Extremely low activity levels of
worst-case scenario. Some people serotonin are associated with less
who like Chinese food and who are inhibition and with instability,
sensitive to glutamate may have impulsivity, and the tendency to
experienced a few adverse reactions overreact to situations. Low serotonin

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activity has been associated with betareceptors so that their response to

aggression, suicide, impulsive a surge of norepinephrine is reduced,
overeating, and excessive sexual which keeps blood pressure and heart
behavior. rate down. In the central nervous
system, a number of norepinephrine
* low serotonin activity may make us circuits have been identified.
more vulnerable to certain
problematic behavior without directly dopamine - a major neurotransmitter
causing it (as mentioned earlier). On that is in the monoamine class and
the other end, high levels of serotonin that is also termed a catecholamine
may interact with GABA to because of the similarity of its
counteract glutamate (the same fact is chemical structure to epinephrine and
emerging about other neurotransmitter norepinephrine.
systems).
- has been implicated in the
* selective-serotonin reuptake pathophysiology of schizophrenia and
inhibitors (SSRIs), including disorders of addiction.
fluoxetine (Prozac) affects serotonin
more directly than other drugs, * dopamine activity is associated with
including the tricyclic antidepressants. exploratory, outgoing, pleasure-
SSRIs are used to treat a number of seeking behaviors and serotonin is
psychological disorders, particularly associated with inhibition and
anxiety, mood, and eating disorders. constraint; thus, in a sense they
The herbal medication St. John’s balance each other.
wort, available in many drugstores,
also affects serotonin levels. * Remember that one of the roles of
serotonin seems to be to moderate our
norepinephrine (also known as reactions. Eating behavior, sexual
noradrenaline) – behavior, and aggression are under
Norepinephrine seems to stimulate at better control with adequate levels of
least two groups (and probably serotonin.
several more) of receptors called
alpha-adrenergic and beta- Check your understanding of the brain
adrenergic receptors. Someone in structures and neurotransmitters.
your family may be taking a widely Match each with its description
used class of drugs called beta- below: (a) frontal lobe, (b) brain stem,
blockers, particularly if that person (c) GABA, (d) midbrain, (e)
has hypertension or difficulties with serotonin,
regulating heart rate. As the name (f) dopamine, (g) norepinephrine, and
indicates, these drugs block the (h) cerebral cortex.

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1. Movement, breathing, and sleeping become “helpless”; in other words,

depend on the they give up attempting to cope and
ancient part of the brain, which is seem to develop the animal equivalent
present in most of depression.
animals. ______________
* Lately, Seligman has turned his
2. Which neurotransmitter binds to attention to a different set of
neuron receptor sites, attributions, which he termed learned
inhibiting postsynaptic activity and optimism. In other words, if people
reducing overall faced with considerable stress and
arousal? ______________ difficulty in their lives nevertheless
display an optimistic, upbeat attitude,
3. Which neurotransmitter is a switch they are likely to function better
that turns on various psychologically and physically.
brain circuits? ______________
Martin Seligman – termed the
4. Which neurotransmitter seems to learned helplessness and learned
be involved in our optimism.
emergency reactions or alarm
responses? ___________ Positive psychology - investigators
explore factors that account for
cognitive science - concerned with positive attitudes and happiness.
how we acquire and process
information and how we store and - the scientific study of what makes
ultimately retrieve it. life most worth living or the scientific
study of positive human functioning
learned helplessness - occurs when and flourishing on multiple levels that
rats or other animals encounter include the biological, personal,
conditions over which they have no relational, institutional, cultural, and
control. If rats are confronted with a global dimensions of life.
situation in which they receive
occasional foot shocks, they can Modeling or observational learning
function well if they learn they can - organisms do not have to experience
cope with these shocks by doing certain events in their environment to
something to avoid them (say, learn effectively. Rather, they can
pressing a lever). But if the animals learn just as much by observing what
learn their behavior has no effect on happens to someone else in a given
their environment—sometimes they situation.
get shocked and sometimes they
don’t, no matter what they do—they

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prepared learning - we have become printed in a different color. They are

highly prepared for learning about
certain types of objects or situations
over the course of evolution because
this knowledge contributes to the
survival of the species. Even without
any contact, we are more likely to
learn to fear snakes or spiders than
rocks or flowers, even if we know
rationally that the snake or spider is
harmless.
shown these words quickly and asked
to name the colors in which they are
printed while ignoring their meaning.
Color naming is delayed when the
meaning of the word attracts the
participant’s attention, despite efforts
to concentrate on the color; that is, the
meaning of the word interferes with
the participant’s ability to process
color information.

implicit memory - is apparent when (functional magnetic resonance

someone clearly acts on the basis of imaging [fMRI]) - have noticed
things that have happened in the past differences in the processing of neural
but can’t remember the events. (A activity in the brain depending on
good memory for events is called whether the person is aware of the
explicit memory.) But implicit information or not.
memory can be selective for only
certain events * Generally the greater the duration,
or circumstances. intensity, and coherence of the neural
representation of a piece of
black box refers to unobservable information in the brain, the more
feelings and cognitions inferred from likely that the person will be aware or
an individual’s self-report. conscious of the information.

* In recent decades, psychologists and flight or fight response - alarm

neuroscientists, confident in an reaction that activates during
established science of behavior, have potentially life-threatening
returned to the black box with new emergencies.
methods, attempting to reveal the
unobservable. Several methods for Example:
studying the unobservable
unconscious have been made possible
by advances in technology. One of
them is the Stroop color-naming
paradigm.

Stroop paradigm - participants are

shown a variety of words, each

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appropriate to the event. The term

Charles Darwin (1809–1882) drew this
cat frightened by a dog to show the affect can also be used more generally
flight or fight reaction to summarize
commonalities among emotional
Emotion – scientists refered as action states characteristic of an individual.
tendency. Thus, someone who tends to be
fearful, anxious, and depressed is
- guided by evolution, to get us to do experiencing negative affect.
what we have to do to pass on our Positive affect would
genes successfully to coming subsume, or include, tendencies to be
generations. pleasant, joyful, excited, and so on.
- usually short-lived, temporary states The Components of Emotion
lasting from several minutes to
several hours, occurring in response Emotion scientists now agree that
to an external event. emotion is composed of three related
components behavior, physiology,
Mood - is a more persistent period of and cognition but most emotion
affect or emotionality. scientists tend to concentrate on one
component or
* We describe enduring or recurring another.
states of depression or excitement
(mania) as mood disorders. But Emotion scientists who concentrate
anxiety disorders described in on behavior think that basic patterns
Chapter 5, are characterized by of emotion differ from one another in
enduring or chronic anxiety and, fundamental ways; for example, anger
therefore, could also be called mood may differ from sadness not only in
disorders. Alternatively, both anxiety how it feels but also behaviorally and
disorders and mood disorders could physiologically. These scientists also
be called emotional disorders, a term emphasize that emotion is a way of
not formally used in psychopathology. communicating between one member
of the species and another.
Affect - refers to the momentary
emotional tone that accompanies what Richard S. Lazarus - proposed that
we say or do. changes in a person’s environment are
appraised in terms of their potential
*For example, if you just got an A on impact on that person. The type of
your test but you look sad, your appraisal you make determines the
friends might think your reaction emotion you experience.
strange because your affect is not

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* For example, if you see somebody - in the system there are many
holding a gun in a dark alley, you will different ways of achieving the
probably appraise the situation as desired state.
dangerous and experience fear. You
would make a different appraisal if
you saw a tour guide displaying an
antique gun in a museum. Lazarus
would suggest that thinking and
feeling cannot be separated, but other
cognitive scientists are concluding
otherwise by suggesting that, although
cognitive and emotional systems
interact and overlap, they are
fundamentally separate.

fright disorders - are characterized

by exaggerated startle responses, and
other observable fear and anxiety
reactions.

Susto - describes various anxiety-

based symptoms, including insomnia,
irritability, phobias, and the marked
somatic symptoms of sweating and
increased heart rate (tachycardia).

- has only one cause: the individual

believes that he or she has become the
object of black magic, or witchcraft,
and is suddenly badly frightened.

gender roles - cultural expectations

of men and women.

Equifinality - is used in
developmental psychopathology to
indicate that we must consider a
number of paths to a given outcome.

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