Stepwise Method:

Introduction to T test 1. State your Hypothesis

t test Population 1: People who took the medication.
• A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to determine if Population 2: People who didn’t took the medication (participants in
there is a significant difference between the means of two general)
group. Ho: μ1 = μ2
• the population standard deviation is unknown Ha: μ1 ≠ μ2
• A t-test looks at the t-statistic, the t-distribution values, and the
degrees of freedom to determine the statistical significance. 2. State the Level of Significance
• The SD of population is unknown because it has few sample α = 0.05; two tailed test
size
• Comparing a mean to see a difference between group A and 3. Calculate the Degrees of Freedom
B df = n – 1
William Gosset df = 30 – 1
df = 29
Degrees of Freedom- number of scores free to vary when
estimating a population parameter;
in the formula for estimating the population variance from a single
sample, the degrees of freedom are the number of scores minus 1.

4. Decision Rule

• Gosset discovered the t distribution and invented the t test—

simplicity itself (compared to most of statistics)—for situations
when samples are small and the variability of the larger
population is unknown
• most statisticians call the t distribution “Student’s t” because
Gosset wrote under the anonymous name “Student.”
Reject the Ho if the t computed value is less than -2.05
One sample t test and greater than 2.05
• used to determine if the sample is significantly different from
the population 5. Determine the t computed value
• sample mean compares to the population mean. x̄ = 140
• If you don’t know the population standard deviation or you μ =100
have a small sample size. s = 20
n = 30
x̄ = Mean of the Sample
μ = Mean of the Population 140 −100
s = Standard Deviation of the Sample t= 20
n = Sample Size √30
140 −100
t= 20
5.48
140 −100
t=
3.65
t = 10.96
6. Conclusion
Since the obtained t computed value 10.96 of is greater than
Standard Error of the Mean (SEM)- measured how much the critical value of 2.05, therefore we reject the null hypothesis.
discrepancy there is likely to be in a sample's mean compared to the The new invented medicine is effective in altering the person’s IQ.
population mean.
Paired t test
Hypothesis Testing using One Sample T Test • Test more than 1 (ex. Before and after test)
Stepwise Method: • repeated measures design research strategy in which each
1. State your Hypothesis person is tested more than once; same as within-subjects
2. State the Level of Significance design.
3. Calculate the Degrees of Freedom • t test for dependent means hypothesis-testing procedure in
4. Decision Rule which there are two scores for each person and the population
5. Determine the t statistic variance is not known; it determines the significance of a
6. Conclusion hypothesis that is being tested using difference or change
scores from a single group of people.
Sample Problem • difference scores difference between a person’s score on
In the population, the average IQ is 100. A team of one testing and the same person’s score on another testing;
psychologists wants to test a new medication to see if it has either a often an after-score minus a before score, in which case it is
positive, negative or no effect on the intelligence at all. A sample of also called a change score
30 participants who have taken the medication has a mean of 140
with a standard deviation of 20. Did the medication have an effect working formula of the Test
on the intelligence? The psychologist wants to test this with an alpha
of 5%. M = sample mean
Given: μ = population mean
x̄ = 140 SM = Standard deviation
μ =100 of distribution of Mean
s = 20
n = 30
 process in solving SM (Standard deviation of distribution of
B 6 6 0
Mean)
C 7 9 -2
S2 = Estimated population
variance (x-mean) D 4 7 -3
SS = Squared Deviation
df = Degrees of Freedom E 3 5 -2

F 5 9 -4
S2M = Variance of the Distribution
of Means G 6 8 -2
S2 = Estimated population
variance H 4 6 -2
N = Numbe kr of sample scores
Total -17
SM = Standard deviation of
distribution of Mean M = ΣD/N
S2M = Variance of the Distribution of = -17/8
Means M = -2.125

Pretes Pos Devi

Sample problem t ttest Differe atio
A guidance counselor of a university selected 9 Stu (Befor (Aft nce n Squared
students who participated on a spiritual retreat. She gave the den e the er (befor (Diff Deviatio
spirituality scale to measure the religiosity before and after the t retreat the e– eren n
retreat. Is the spiritual retreat effective on the students with an alpha ) retr after) ce –
of 0.05 level of confidence? eat) M)

Stepwise Method: A 5 7 -2 0.13 0.02

1. State your Hypothesis
B 6 6 0 -2.13 4.52
Population 1: Students who participates the retreat.
Population 2: Students who didn't participates the retreat. C 7 9 -2 0.13 0.02

D 4 7 -3 -0.88 0.77
2. State the Level of Significance
α = 0.05; two tailed test E 3 5 -2 0.13 0.02
3. Calculate the Degrees of Freedom F 5 9 -4 -1.88 3.52
df = n – 1
df = 8 – 1 G 6 8 -2 0.13 0.02
df = 7
H 4 6 -2 0.13 0.02
4. Decision Rule
Reject the Ho if the t computed value is less than - 2.365 Tot -17
8.88
and greater than 2.365 al

5. Determine the t statistic

Step 1

Step 1 S2 = Estimated population variance

= 8.88/7
S2 = 1.268

Step 2 Step 2

S2M = Variance of the Distribution of Means

Step 3
= 1.268/8
S2M = 0.159

Step 3
Pretest Posttest
Difference
(Before (After
Student (before –
the the
after) SM = Standard deviation of distribution of Mean
retreat) retreat)
S2M = √0.159
A 5 7 -2 SM = 0.398
 3. Variance of the Distribution of Means is the population
Determine the t statistics variance divided by the sample size

M = -2.125
4. Variance of the Distribution of Differences between Means
μ = 0 (assumed as a no-change baseline of comparison) the variance of Population 1’s distribution of means plus the
SM = 0.398
variance of Population 2’s distribution of means
−2.125 −0
= - 5.339
0.398
t = - 5.339

6. Conclusion 5. Standard Deviation of the Distribution of Differences between

Since the obtained t computed value - 5.339 of is less than
the critical value of - 2.365, therefore we reject the null hypothesis.
The retreat conducted in school increases the religiosity scores of
the student.
T Test for independent means
• hypothesis-testing procedure in which there are two separate
groups of people tested and in which the population variance
is not known.
• Called Unpaired T Test or Two Sample T Test
• Each person on the study has only been measured once
• Between Subjects Designs
t Test for Independent Means
Means (the square root of the variance)
Sample Problem
Twenty students were recruited to take part in the study.
The 10 students randomly assigned to the expressive writing group
wrote about their thoughts and feelings associated with their most
traumatic life events. The 10 students randomly assigned to the
control group wrote about their plans for the day. One month later,
all of the students rated their overall level of physical health on a
scale from 0 = very poor health to 100 = perfect health. (Although
this example is based on actual studies, we made up the details we
use here to be an easier example to follow for learning. Mainly,
actual studies usually have large samples. Level of significance at
5%.

t Test for dependent Means

Stepwise Method:
1. STATE YOUR HYPOTHESIS
Population 1: Students who engage in expressive
writing.
Population 2: Students who write about a neutral topic
t Test for Independent Means
(their plans for the day)
M1 = mean of sample 1
Ho: μ1 = μ2
M2 = mean of sample 2
Ha: μ1 ≠ μ2
Sdifference = standard deviation of the
distribution of differences between
2. STATE THE LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE
means
α = 0.05; two tailed test
Steps to Find the Standard Deviation of the Distribution of
3. CALCULATE THE DEGREES OF FREEDOM
Differences Between Means
1. Figure the estimated population variances based on each
sample.

4. DECISION RULE
2. Pooled estimate of the Population Variance
Reject the Ho if the z computed value is less than
average the two estimates to get the best single overall
- 2.101 and greater than 2.101
estimate.

5. DETERMINE THE T STATISTIC

 • Series of computation to compute the t statistic

1.
6. CONCLUSION
Since the obtained t computed value of 2.42 of is greater
than the critical value of 2.101, therefore we reject the null
hypothesis.

The study shows that students who engage in expressive

writing report a higher level of health than students who write about
a neutral topic.

Analysis of Variance / F Test

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OR ANNONA
• hypothesis-testing procedure for studies with three or more
groups.
• Hypothesis testing in analysis of variance is about whether the
means of the samples differ more than you would expect if the
null hypothesis were true. (get the differences)
• This question about means is answered, surprisingly, by
analysing variances
F RATIO

Ronald Fisher
ratio of the between-groups population variance
2.
estimate to the within-groups population variance estimate.

ESTIMATING POPULATION VARIANCE FROM VARIATION

WITHIN EACH SAMPLE
• Within-Groups estimate of the Population Variance-
estimate of the variance of the population of individuals based
3.
on the variation among the scores in each of the actual groups
studied.

• Between-Groups estimate of the Population Variance-

estimate of the variance of the population of individuals based
on the variation among the means of the groups studied.

F RATIO

4.

The F ratio is the between-groups population variance

estimate (or mean squares between) divided by the within-groups
population variance estimate (or mean squares within)

5. STEPWISE METHOD:
1. State your Hypothesis
2. State the Level of Significance
3. Calculate the Degrees of Freedom
4. Decision Rule
5. Determine the F statistic
• After getting the Sdifference we will continue to compute the t 6. Decision and Conclusion
statistic of the sample problem
SAMPLE PROBLEM
 A psychologist at a private psychiatric hospital was
asked to determine whether there was any clear difference in the
length of stay of patients with different categories of diagnosis.
Looking at the last four patients in each of the three major
categories, the results (in terms of weeks of stay) were as follows:

STEPWISE METHOD

1. State your Hypothesis

Population 1: Patients with affective disorders.
Population 2: Patients with cognitive disorders. 𝚺𝒙2= Σ𝑥 12+ Σ𝑥 22+ Σ𝑥 32
Population 3: Patients with drug-related conditions =146+410+408
Ho: μ1 = μ2 = μ3 G = sum of all scores 𝚺𝒙2=964
Ha: μ1 ≠ μ2 ≠ μ3 in the study
N = total number of scores
2. State the Level of Significance G= Σ𝑥1+ Σ𝑥2+ Σ𝑥3
α = 0.05; two tailed test =24+40+40 N= total of X1, X2, X3
G =104 =4+4+4
N =12
3. Calculate the Degrees of Freedom
dftotal = N – 1 dfbetween = k – 1
= 12 – 1 Denominator- dfwithin SS = sum of squares Formula:
=3-1 Numerator- dfbetween
dftotal = 11 dfbetween =2

dfwithin = N – k Where:
= 12 – 3 k = number of groups/ treatment S𝚺𝒙 12 𝚺𝒙 22
dfwithin = 9 N = total number of scores

𝚺𝒙 32
4. Decision Rule
Reject the Ho if the F computed value is less than – 4.26 and
greater than 4.26
• Third step
5. Determine the F statistics Complete the anova table

• First step

to get total SS total in the table

SStotal = sum of squares total Formula:

to get total SS within group in the table

• Second step

to get total SS between group in the table

SSbetween = SStotal – SSwithin

= 62.67 – 20
=42.67
To get the MS in the table

MSwithin = SSwithin/ dfwithin

= 20/ 9
=2.22

MSbetween = SSbetween / dfbetween

= 42.67/ 2
=21.332
To get the F ratio in the table
Formula:
Main Effect- The mean differences among the levels of one
factor

F = MSBetween / MSwithin
= 21.335/ 2.22
=9.610

6. Decision and Conclusion

Since the obtained f computed value of is 9. 610 greater than
the critical value of 4.26, therefore we reject the null hypothesis.

The length of stay of the patients in the psychiatric hospital Interaction Effect-Occurs whenever two factors, acting
has difference in every diagnostic criterion. together, produce mean differences that are NOT explained by main
effects of two factors

Two Way Anova/ Factorial

Analysis of Variance
Introduction to factorial designs

Main effects and interaction

When two or more independent variables are combined in a single
study, the independent variables are called factors.

One way anova vs. two way anova

SAMPLE PROBLEM
A psychiatrist is conducting an experiment to evaluate the
interventions made to his patients. Psychopathology often treated in
myriad ways but the psychologist wants to test the effectivity of
 psychotherapy, medicines or both to treat schizophreniform. Right
after every intervention, a wellness scale is being measured. It is
tested at 5% level of significance. 4. Decision Rule
Numerator- factor A, B, and interaction
Denominator-within treatments

1. Reject the Ho if the F computed value is less than – 4.75

and greater than 4.75 (Main Effect = Factor A)
2. Reject the Ho if the F computed value is less than – 4.75
and greater than 4.75 (Main Effect = Factor B)
3. Reject the Ho if the F computed value is less than – 4.75
and greater than 4.75 (Interaction = Factor A x B)

5. Determine the F statistic

Stepwise method
1. State your Hypothesis
Population 1: Patients who undergo with psychotherapy and
medications.
Population 2: Patients who undergo with psychotherapy and without
medications.
Population 3: Patients who undergo without psychotherapy and with
medications.
Population 4: Patients who undergo without psychotherapy and
without medications.

1. There is no difference in the wellness score for the

psychotherapy.
2. There is no difference in the wellness score for the medication.
3. There is no interaction effect between patients who undergo
both psychotherapy and medication
N = 16
2. State the Level of Significance n=4
α = 0.05; two tailed tests G = 92
∑X2 = 660
3. Calculate the Degrees of Freedom

dfwithin treatments = (∑df each treatment (n – 1)

=4-1=3
𝟔𝟒
=3+3+3+3 𝑴𝑺𝑨 =
𝟏
dfwithin treatments = 12
𝑴𝑺𝑨 = 𝟔𝟒

dfbetween treatments = number of cells – 1 • Process of computing all the SS in the table
=4–1
dfbetween treatments = 3 Total Variability

dftotal = (dfbetween treatments + dfwithin treatments)

= 3 + 12
dftotal = 15 92 𝑴𝑺𝑨 = 64
16 = 131

Degrees of Freedom for Factor A Within Treatments Variability

= 5+8+8+1
= 22

Degrees of Freedom for Factor B Between Treatments Variability

131 – 22 = 109

Main Effect for Factor A (Psychotherapy)

Degrees of Freedom for Interaction (A x B)
 Main Effect for Factor B (Medication)

582 342 922

𝑺𝑺𝑩 = + -
8 8 16
= 420.5 + 144.5 – 529
𝑺𝑺𝑩 = 36 6. Decision and Conclusion
Main Effect: Factor A (Psychotherapy)
A x B Interaction • Since the obtained f computed value of is 34.97 greater
than the critical value of 4.75, therefore we reject the null
hypothesis. There is a statistical evidence to support this
claim.
= 109 – 64 – 36 • There is a difference in the wellness score for the
=9 psychotherapy.

Main Effect: Factor B (Medication)

• Process of computing all the mS in the • Since the obtained f computed value of is 19.67 greater
table than the critical value of 4.75, therefore we reject the null
hypothesis. There is a statistical evidence to support this
MS within treatments claim.
• There is a difference in the wellness score for the
medication.

Interaction Effect: Factor A x B (Psychotherapy x

𝟐𝟐
𝑴𝑺𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 = Medication)
𝟏𝟐 • Since the obtained f computed value of is 4.92 greater
𝑴𝑺𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 = 1.83 than the critical value of 4.75, therefore we reject the null
This value forms the denominator for all three F-ratios. hypothesis. There is a statistical evidence to support this
claim.
• There is an interaction effect between patients who
undergo both psychotherapy and medication

𝑴𝑺𝑩 =
𝟑𝟔
𝑴𝑺𝑨𝑋𝑩 =
𝟗 Correlational
𝟏 𝟏
Correlation is a statistical technique that is used to
𝑴𝑺b = 36 𝑴𝑺𝑨𝑋𝑩 = 9 measure and describe the relationship between two variables.

Scatter plot
• Process of computing all the f value in the
table

𝟔𝟒 𝟑𝟔
𝑭𝑨 = 𝑴𝑺𝑨 = 36 𝑭𝑩 =
𝟏.𝟖𝟑 𝟏.𝟖𝟑
𝑭𝑨 = 34.97
𝑭𝑩 = 19.67

• uses dots to represent values for two different numeric

variables.
• used to observe relationships between variables

𝟗
𝑭𝑨𝑋𝑩 = Characteristics of a Relationship
𝟏. 𝟖𝟑 Direction of the Relationship
𝑭𝑨𝑋𝑩 = 4.92 The sign of the correlation; positive or negative

ANOVA Table • Positive Correlation

 relation between two variables that shows up on a scatter diagram
as dots following a systematic pattern that is not a straight line.
X increases = Y increases
X decreases = Y decreases • Strength or Consistency of the Relationship

• Negative Correlation

measures the consistency of the relationship

A. -1.00 (perfect negative correlation)
B. (no linear relation)
X increases = Y decreases C. 0.90 (strong positive relationship)
X decreases = Y increases D. -0.40 (weak negative correlation)

• No Correlation

X increases = Y decreases
X decreases = Y increases

Characteristics of a Relationship
Forms of the Relationship- the relationships tend to have a linear
form;

• Linear Correlation

The Pearson Correlation

that is, the points in the scatter plot tend to cluster around a straight
line.
• Curvilinear Correlation

Karl Pearson
• By far the most common correlation is the Pearson correlation
(or the Pearson product–moment correlation), which
measures the degree of linear relationship;
• The Pearson correlation for a sample is identified by the letter
r

Sample Problem
A third year BS Psychology student wants to determine the
relationship of their participants’ number of hours studying in
Theories of Personality and their Midterm score. It is tested with 5%
level of confidence.

• Third step; multiply the deviation and find the summation

Stepwise Method
1. State your Hypothesis
Ho: There is no significant relationship between the number of hours • Fourth step; squared (X – M), (Y – M) then compute the
studying and examination score summation
Ha: There is no significant relationship between the number of hours
studying and examination score

2. State the Level of Significance

α = 0.05; two tailed tests

3. Calculate the Degrees of Freedom

(N- number of your participants)
df = N – 2
= 10 – 2
df = 8
4. Decision Rule

5. Determine the r

Reject the Ho if the r computed value is less than – 0.63 and greater
than 0.63
• First step; Compute the mean
r = 0.71 (Strong Positive Correlation)

6. Decision and Conclusion

Since the obtained r computed value of is 0.71 greater
than the r critical value of 0.63, therefore we reject the null
hypothesis. There is a statistical evidence to support this claim.

Time spend in studying and exam score has strong

positive linear relationship.

• Second step; find the deviation score Parametric & Non-parametric

statistics
Parametric Statistics-It makes certain assumptions about the
distribution of the unknown parameter of interest and thus the test
statistic is valid under these assumptions
Non-Parametric Statistics-do not have assumptions about the
shape of the population distribution.

What to use?