ANATOMY OF THE

SPECIAL SENSES
ANA 303 (NEUROANATOMY)/Lecturer: E. E. Edem
 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
• Differentiate between general and special senses
• Identify the different special senses and organs
• Eye and vision
• Ear and hearing/balance
• Tongue and gustation
• Nose and olfaction
• Eye and vision:
• Identify the different tunics of the eye and the major function each
• Summarize the pathway of vision
• Ear and hearing/balance:
• Identify the different layers of the ears, their components and functions
• Explain the role of the organ of Corti in hearing
• Describe the equilibrium structures help maintain balance
• Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell
• Desribe the location, structure and function of the olfactory and taste receptors
• Name the 4 basic sensations and the factors that modify the sense of taste
• Clinical Considerations
Love is the 7th sense of Human that destroys all
the other senses and makes the person…

NON-
 Special Senses
 Comparing the general senses and the special senses
General Senses
– Include somatic sensations
(tactile, thermal, pain, and
proprioceptive) and
visceral sensations
– Are scattered throughout
the body
– Are relatively simple
structures
Special Senses
–Include smell, taste, vision,
hearing and equilibrium
–Are concentrated in specific
locations in the head
–Are anatomically distinct
structures
–Form complex neural
pathways
 Special Senses
• Receptors for the special senses of smell, taste,
vision, hearing, and equilibrium are anatomically
distinct from one another and are concentrated
in specific locations in the head
• In addition to the stimuli and the receptors, there are
specific afferent pathways and translation sites in the
brain for information assembled from these special
senses
 Olfaction
• Olfaction is the process of perceiving smells.
• Smell and taste are brought about through the
interpretation of chemicals present in the
environment
• Olfactory and gustatory (taste) impulses travel not
only to the cerebral cortex, but also to the limbic
system….meaning?
• We can have emotional responses and strong memories
to certain smells and tastes
• gustation and olfaction work together. Olfaction is much
stronger/more sensitive (when someone has a cold it is
difficult to taste food)
 Olfaction
• The olfactory epithelium
is located in the superior
part of the nasal cavity
covering the surface of
the cribriform plate and
extending along the
superior nasal concha
Olfaction Sensory Pathways
• Once generated, nerve impulses travel
through the:
 The bipolar cells (receptors) in the olfactory
Olfaction
epithelium is the only sensory
system
 The twothat doesn’t
olfactory nerves go through
 The olfactory bulbs
the relay stations in the thalamus
 The olfactory tract
 The primary olfactory area in the temporal lobe
of the cortex
Olfaction
 Olfaction
• The olfactory apparatus
can detect about 10,000
different odours, often in
concentrations as low as
1/25 billionth of a
milligram per milliliter of
air

• When an odorant binds to

the receptor of an
olfactory hair it initiates a
cascade of intracellular
events
Olfactory Sensory Pathways
• Olfactory sensory pathways (centrally) are rapidly
adapting, decreasing activity by 50% in the first second,

Neurons in this
and completely accommodating in 1–2 minutes
• Odorant molecules enter as gases and dissolve in liquid:
1. Bind with olfactory receptor cells
pathways are divided
2. Nerve Impulse travels on fibers through cribriform plate of
ethmoid bone

into first and second

3. Fibers Synapse with neurons of olfactory bulbs (CNI)
4. Travel along olfactory tracts to limbic system (amygdala)
and cerebral cortex

order neurons
Gustation
• Gustation, or taste, detects five primary tastes : sour,

sweet, bitter, salty, and umami (“meaty” or “savory”)

 Sense of Taste
• Taste Buds are organs of taste
• Humans have 10,000 of these located on papillae of
tongue, roof of mouth, cheek linings, walls of pharynx
• Taste Receptors are chemoreceptors, called taste cells that
are located on taste buds
• Taste cells have receptive microvilli (taste hair) that project
through a taste pore
• Taste hair is sensitive portion
that detects chemicals
dissolved in saliva
• Undergo rapid
sensory adaptation
Gustation
• In addition, the entire surface of the tongue has filiform

papillae that contain tactile

receptors but no
taste buds
•They increase
friction between the
tongue and food,
making it easier to
move food in the oral cavity
Gustation
• Three cranial nerves contain axons gustatory neurons that

innervate the taste buds

• The facial (VII) nerve serves taste buds in the anterior 2/3 of the

tongue
• The glossopharyngeal (IX)

nerve serves taste buds in the

posterior 1/3 of the tongue
• The vagus (X) nerve serves taste

buds in the throat and epiglottis

Gustation
• Nerve impulses propagate along these cranial nerves to the
gustatory nucleus in the medulla oblongata. From there,
axons carrying taste signals project
to the hypothalamus, limbic
system, and thalamus
• Taste is perceived consciously as
signals from the thalamus arrive
at the primary gustatory area at
the base of the somatosensory
cortex in the parietal lobe
Taste Pathways
• Taste signals enter the brain at the medulla from 3 cranial
nerves
• Facial Nerve, VII, carries impulses from anterior 2/3 of
tongue
• Glossopharyngeal Nerve, IX, carries impulses from
posterior 1/3 of tongue
• Vagus Nerve, X, carries impulses from base of tongue &
pharynx
• Impulses then travel to the Thalamus and to the cerebral
cortex
• Taste impulse then travels to the limbic system for an
emotional tag
Structure of Retina
• Retina contains visual receptors called photoreceptors (rods
and cones)

• 3 layers
• Outer
• Photoreceptors (rods & cones)
• Middle
• Bipolar neurons
• Inner
• Ganglion cells (axons join & form optic nerve)

• Light passes through ganglion and bipolar neurons before

reaching photoreceptors
Retinal Layers
Anatomy of the Eye
• The retina consists of two
types of photoreceptor cells,
rods and cones
• Rods are abundant in the
periphery of the retina whereas
cones are found more frequently
in the central areas
Anatomy of the Eye
• Each eye contains ≈ 120 million rod-

shaped photoreceptors that are

adapted for a low light threshold
(high sensitivity) - they produce low
resolution, black and white images
• a loss of rods with age makes it difficult to

drive at night
Anatomy of the Eye
• Cone-shaped photoreceptors function in bright light to

produce high resolution color images

• They exists in three varieties,

corresponding to the type of

pigment they contain: red, green or blue
• The photopigments are concentrated in

the outer segment of the receptor, while the

inner segment contains the
nucleus and organelles
 Retina
• The exact center of the retina is called the macula lutea, and
in its center is a small depression called the central fovea (or
fovea centralis)
• There are no rods or nerve cells in the fovea, only a high
concentration of cones - this gives us the sharp central
vision
• Optic disc - back of retina, site where nerve fibers leave
retina
• Central retinal artery
enters and central
retinal vein exits
• BLIND SPOT
• CONTAINS NO
PHOTORECEPTORS
 The Pupillary Response
• The pupil is an opening in the center of the iris. It is

composed of a radial muscle that “radiates” away from the

center, and a circular muscle that is in the center
• Contraction of the inner circular muscle fibers (bright light) cause the

pupil to constrict
• Contraction of the radial

Fibers (dim light) causes

it to dilate
Accommodation
• Ability to adjust strength (shape) of lens in order to focus
both near and far sources on retina
• Controlled by ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments

• Normal image formation depends on refraction of light

waves, accommodation of the lens, constriction of the
pupil, and convergence of the two eyes
 Refraction : Focusing Light
•Refraction is the bending of light rays in order for
them to be focused on the retina
•Refraction occurs when light reaches the cornea
and again when it reaches the lens
•This is the basis for corrective measures for vision
 Refraction
• If the shape of the eye is normal, light waves are focused
sharply on the retina
• Image detected on retina is upside down & backward
because of bending of light rays
• Image is interpreted correctly in visual cortex
 Refraction Disorders
• Myopia
• Nearsightedness
• Light focused in front of
retina
• Corrected with concave
lens
• Hyperopia
• Farsightedness
• Light focused behind
retina
• Corrected with convex
lens
HOW DOES THE BRAIN
INTERPRET WHAT WE
SEE?

Light must reach photoreceptors in retina

and be transformed into electrical (neural)
signals in the CNS
Visual Transduction
• The first step in visual transduction is absorption of light by

a photopigment, a colored protein that undergoes

structural changes when it
absorbs light in the outer
segment of a photoreceptor
•Light absorption initiates
a series of events that
lead to the production
of a receptor potential
(number 4 in the diagram)
Phototransduction
• Conversion of light stimuli into neural signals
• Mechanism same for all photoreceptors
• Occurs in bright light

1. Photopigment absorbs light & breaks down to 2

components
2. Hyperpolarizes rods/cones
3. Decrease in release of inhibitory neurotransmitter

• What is the effect in dim light?

 HOW DOES THE RETINA SIGNAL THE BRAIN IF
PHOTOTRANSDUCTION INVOLVES AN
INHIBITORY NEUROTRANSMITTER?

• Prevent release of inhibitory neurotransmitter =

Excitation

• Light: remove inhibitory NT = Excite

• Dark: presence of inhibitory NT = Inhibition

Visual Pathway
• Fibers partially cross
over in optic chiasm
• Right half of brain
interprets image from left
eye and vice versa
• How does this affect
damage to a particular
area of optic pathway?
Structure of Eye: Anterior to Posterior

• Cornea
• Aqueous Humor
• Iris
• Pupil
• Lens
• Vitreous Humor in Posterior Cavity
• Retina
• Choroid (continues anteriorly to form ciliary body)
• Sclera
PATHWAY OF LIGHT
• OPTIC NERVE
• CORNEA • OPTIC CHIASM
• AQUEOUS HUMOR • OPTIC TRACT
• LENS • THALAMUS
• VITREOUS HUMOR • PRIMARY VISUAL
• PHOTORECEPTORS CORTEX OF
OF RETINA OCCIPITAL CORTEX
Sense of Hearing and Equilibrium
• The ear is the organ of hearing

•The ear also contains receptors for equilibrium

The Ear
• The ear has 3 principle regions
• The external ear, which uses air to collect and channel sound waves

• The middle ear, which uses a

bony system to amplify

sound vibrations
• The internal ear, which

generates action potentials to transmit

sound and balance information to the brain
Auditory & Vestibular Sense
External Ear: auricle (pinna)
external auditory meatus
Middle Ear: tympanic membrane
ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes)
tympanic cavity
Eustachian tube
Inner Ear: oval window
cochlea
vestibule
semicircular canals
Fig 12.9
External Ear
• auricle (pinna)
• collects sounds waves

• external auditory meatus

• directs sound waves
toward tympanic
membrane
• lined with ceruminous
glands & hairs
• terminates with
tympanic membrane

12-25
 Middle Ear or Tympanic Cavity
• air-filled space in temporal bone
• tympanic membrane (eardrum)
• vibrates in response to
sound waves
• auditory ossicles
• vibrate in response to
tympanic membrane
• vibrations are concentrated
and amplified by ossicles
• malleus, incus, and stapes
• Vibration of ossicles causes
movement of fluid in inner ear
Eustachian (Auditory) Tube
• connects tympanic
cavity (middle ear
cavity) to nasopharynx
• helps maintain equal
pressure on both sides
of tympanic membrane
• usually closed by
valve-like flaps in
throat

12-27
Eustachian Tubes: Air Pressure Changes

• Traveling from high altitude to low altitude causes an ↑

in air pressure outside tympanic membrane
• Pushes tympanic membrane inward
• Swallowing, yawning or chewing allow valves in throat to open,
air enters tube and equalizes pressure on inside of eardrum
• “popping sound”
Middle Ear Infections
• Mucous membranes lining eustachian tube are
continuous with lining of middle ear
• Passageway for bacteria from throat or nasal passages
to middle ear
• Children have shorter eustachian tubes, so
infection more frequent in children
• Insertion of ‘tubes’ through tympanic membrane
into eustachian tube allows ears to drain
Inner Ear
• Complex system of intercommunicating chambers and
tubes called a labyrinth
•
• Osseous labyrinth
• bony canal in temporal bone filled with fluid perilymph

• Membranous labyrinth
• tube that lies within osseous labyrinth
• filled with fluid endolymph
Inner Ear:
Labyrinths
 Inner Ear

Oval window – entrance to

inner ear, covered by stapes

3 Parts of Labyrinths
• cochlea
• functions in hearing
• semicircular canals
• functions in
equilibrium
• vestibule
• functions in hearing
and equilibrium
12-29
 Cochlea
• Coiled tubular system
• 3 fluid filled longitudinal
compartments
• Scala vestibuli
• Cochlear Duct
• Scala tympani
• Helicotrema – apex
where fluid in top and
bottom is continuous
 Sense of Hearing: Cochlea
Scala vestibuli
• upper bony compartment of labyrinth
• leads from oval window to apex of spiral
• filled with perilymph

Scala tympani
• lower bony compartment of labyrinth
• extends from apex of the cochlea to round window
• filled with perilymph

These are separated by cochlear duct filled with endolymph

Inner Ear: Cochlea
 Sense of Hearing: Cochlea

Cochlear duct
• portion of membranous
labyrinth within cochlea
• filled with endolymph
Vestibular membrane
• forms roof of cochlear
duct
Basilar membrane
• forms floor of cochlear
duct
• Sense organ for hearing
located here
12-31
Cochlear Anatomy

• Scala vestibuli
• Vestibular membrane
• Cochlear duct
• Basilar membrane
• Floor of cochlear duct
• Organ of Corti located
here
• Scala tympani
 Sense of Hearing: Organ of Corti

• Organ of Corti is located

on the upper surface of the
basilar membrane
• Hearing receptor cells are
located on the organ of
Corti
• Hair cells covered by a
tectorial membrane
• These receptors are
mechanoreceptors
Movement of Sound
• Vibrations of ossicles in middle ear cause movement of
fluid in inner ear
• Results in vibrations of basilar membrane, and bending of
hair cells on Organ of Corti
• Hair cells bend against tectorial membrane
• Nerve impulse initiated on cochlear branch of CN VIII
Auditory Pathway
• Vibrations to basilar membrane
• Hair receptor cells bend against tectorial membrane
• Ca++ enters receptor cells
• Neurotransmitter from hair cells released to outside
• Stimulates nearby sensory fibers
• NI carried along cochlear branch of Vestibulocochlear
nerve (CNVIII)
• Medulla Oblongata (fibers cross-over here)
• Thalamus
• Temporal Cortex
• Impulses from each ear interpreted on both sides of
brain
The Sense of Hearing:
Auditory Nerve Pathways

12-34
Sound Pathway
• Auricle, External Auditory Meatus
• Tympanic Membrane, Malleus, Incus, Stapes
(through oval window to)
• Perilymph of scala vestibuli, vestibular membrane
• Endolymph of cochlear duct
• Hair cells of Organ of Corti. NT released &
stimulates sensory neuron
• Travels along Cochlear branch of
vestibulocochlear nerve (CNVIII)
• Medulla to Thalamus to
• Primary auditory cortex of temporal lobe
Hearing Loss
• Conductive
• Interference with transmission of vibrations to inner ear
• Physical blockage, eardrum rupture, middle ear
infections, restriction of ossicle movement
• Can be treated with hearing aids
• Sensorineural
• Sound waves transmitted, no neural processing
• Damage to Vestibulocochlear Nerve or cochlea
• Can sometimes be treated with cochlear implants
Sense of Equilibrium
• Feeling of equilibrium is derived from two senses
• Involves semicircular canals & vestibule
• Vestibule connects semicircular canals to cochlea

Static Equilibrium Dynamic Equilibrium

• senses • senses rotation and
movement of movement of head when
head when body they suddenly move or
is still rotate
• vestibule • Semicircular canals

12-36
 Sense of Static Equilibrium: Vestibule
• Receptor cells send
info along vestibular
branch of CN VIII

•Motor impulses are

then sent out to help
maintain balance
Vestibular Sense: How the body handles
movement
• Sensory receptors in inner ear give you information about
movement, gravity and vibration
• Keeps you upright when you bend or rotate the head (postural
adjustments)

• Quick start and stop movements give very intense

vestibular stimulation
Vestibular Input
• Jumping up and down
• Running
• Swinging
• Spinning

• Vestibular system is the primary organizer of sensory

input