Professional Documents
Culture Documents
– Cochlear duct
• Portion of the membranous labyrinth within the cochlea.
Contains endolymph
• Lies between the 2 bony compartments and ends as a
closed sac at the apex of the cochlea
• Separated from the scala vestibuli by a vestibular
membrane (Reissner’s membrane)
• Separated from scala tympani by a basilar membrane
Cochlea. A.) Cross section of the cochlea. B.) Organ of Corti and the tectorial
membrane.
– Basilar membrane
• Contains many thousands of stiff, elastic fibers
• Sound vibrations entering the perilymph at the
oval window travel along the scala vestibuli,
pass through the vestibular membrane into the
endolymph of the cochlear duct where they
move the basilar membrane
• Then vibrations enter the perilymph of the
scala tympani to the round window and
dissipate into the tympanic cavity
– Organ of Corti
• Contains the hearing receptors
• Located on the upper surface of the basilar
membrane and stretches from the apex to base
of the cochlea
• Receptor cells (hair cells) are organized in
rows and have many hairlike processes that
project into the cochlear duct
Cochlea. A.) Cross section of the cochlea. B.) Organ of Corti and the tectorial
membrane.
SEM of hair cells on the organ of Corti
– Tectorial membrane
• Attached to the bony shelf of the cochlea,
passing over the receptor cells and contacting
the tips of their hairs
• As sound vibrations move back and forth
against the tectorial membrane causing
mechanical deformation and stimulating the
receptor cells
• Various receptor cells have slightly different
sensitivities to deformation.
– A particular sound frequency may excite certain receptor
cells and another frequency excites a different set of hair
cell
• Hearing receptor cells are epithelial but
function somewhat like neurons
– Membrane is polarized when at rest and
depolarized when stimulated and more permeable
to Ca+ ions
– Has no axons or dendrites but has
neurotransmitter-containing vesicles near its base
– As Ca+ ions diffuse into the cell, some fuse with
cell membrane and release neurotransmitter
which stimulates the ends of nearby sensory
nerve fibers
– Impulses are transmitted along the cochlear
branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve to the
auditory cortex of the temporal lobe of the brain
Auditory Nerve Pathway
• Nerve fibers associated with hearing
• Pass into the auditory cortices of the
temporal lobe of the cerebrum where they
are interpreted on both sides of the brain
• Some fibers cross over so that impulses
from each ear are interpreted on both sides
of the brain
• Damage to the temporal lobe on one side
does not necessarily cause complete hearing
loss on that side
Decibels (dB)
• Measure of sound intensity
• Scale begins at 0dB = intensity of
sound least perceptible by a normal
human ear
• Scale is logarithmic: 10dB is 10x as
intense as 0dB, 20dB is 100x more
intense, 30dB is 1000x more intense
• Whisper = 40dB
• Normal Conversation = 60-70dB
• Heavy traffic = 80dB
• Rock Concert = 120dB, causes discomfort
• Jet plane take off = 140dB, pain
• Frequent or prolonged exposure to sounds
with intensities above 90dB can damage
hearing receptors and cause permanent
hearing loss.
Hearing Loss
• Conductive deafness:
– Interference with transmission of vibrations to the
inner ear
– May be due to plugging of the external auditory
meatus or to changes in the eardrum or auditory
ossicles
• Ex. Eardrum may harden as a result of disease and be
less responsive to sound waves
• Ex. Disease or injury may tear or perforate the eardrum
• Sensorineural Deafness:
– Damage to the cochlea, auditory nerve or
auditory nerve pathways
– Can be caused by loud sounds, tumors in
the CNS, brain damage as a result of
vascular accidents or use of certain drugs
Sense of Equilibrium
• Two senses that come from different
sensory organs
• Static Equilibrium: senses position of
the head, maintaining stability and
posture when the head and body are
still
• Dynamic Equilibrium: sense sudden
movement or rotation of the head and
body. Aid in maintaining balance
Static Equilibrium
• Organs located within the vestibule, a bony
chamber between the semicircular canals
and the cochlea
• There are two expanded chambers inside the
vestibule – the utricle and the saccule
• Each chamber has a tiny structure called a
macula that contains numerous hair cells
which serve as sensory receptors
• When the head is upright, the hairs project upward
into a mass of gelatinous material containing grains
of calcium carbonate (called otoliths)
• When the head bends forward, backward, or to one
side, the hair cells are stimulated as the gelatinous
masses of the maculae sag in response to gravity
causing the hair to bend
• Stimulated hair cells signal nerve fibers resulting in
impulses traveling to the CNS on the vestibular
branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve and informing
the brain of the head’s new position
• Brain responds by sending motor impulses to
skeletal muscles to contract/relax to maintain
balance
The macula responds to changes in head position. A.) Macula with the head in an
upright position. B.) Macula with the head bent forward.
Dynamic Equilibrium
• Semicircular canals are the organs of
dynamic equilibrium and are located in
the labyrinth
• Detect motion of the head and aid in
balancing the head and body during
sudden movement
• Semicircular canals lie at right angles
to each other and correspond to the
different anatomical planes
• Ampulla: swelling at the end of a
membranous canal that is suspended
in the perilymph of the bony portion of
each semicircular canal
– Contains sensory organs called crista
ampullaris which are made up of sensory
hair cells and supporting cells
– Hair cells extend upward into a dome-
shaped gelatinous mass called the cupula
A crista ampullaris is located within the ampulla of each semicircular canal.
• Rapid turns of the head or body stimulate the
hair cells of the crista ampullaris
(semicircular canals move with the head but
the fluid, remains stationary)
• Hair cells signal associated nerve fibers to
send impulses to the brain – cerebellum
• Analysis of info allows the brain to predict
the consequences of the rapid body
movements and signal appropriate skeletal
muscle to maintain balance
Equilibrium. A.) When the head is stationary, the cupula of the crista ampullaris remains
upright. B.) When the head is moving rapidly, C.) the cupula bends opposite the motion
of the head, stimulating sensory receptors.
Other Sensory Structures Aid in
Maintaining Equilibrium
• Mechanoreceptors associated with
joints of neck inform the brain about
position of body parts
• Eyes detect changes in posture
• Visual info is important. Even if organs
of equilibrium are damaged, a person
may be able to maintain normal balance
(eyes open and move slowly)
Motion Sickness
• Boat, airplane, car
• Caused by abnormal and irregular body
motions that disturb the organs of
equilibrium
• Symptoms include nausea, vomiting,
dizziness, headache, and prostration
(weakness, collapse, exhaustion)
Sense of Sight
Sense of Sight
• Eye: organ containing visual receptors
– Provides vision with assistance of
accessory organs
• Visual accessory organs
– Eyelids, lacrimal apparatus (protects eye),
and a set of extrinsic muscles (move eye)
Orbital Cavity
• Location of eye and accessory organs
• Pear-shaped
• Lined with the periosteum of various
bones and contains fat, blood vessels,
nerves, and connective tissues.
Eyelid (4 layers)
• Skin: thinnest skin of body. Covers the lids
outer surface.
• Muscle:
– Orbicularis oculi: acts as a sphincter and closes
lid when it contracts.
– Levator palpebrae superioris: raises the upper lid
• Connective tissue
• Conjunctiva: mucous membrane that lines
the inner surfaces of the eyelids and anterior
surface of eyeball except for the central
portion (cornea).
Sagittal section of the closed eyelids and anterior portion of the eye.
Lacrimal Apparatus
• Lacrimal Gland: secretes tears continuously.
Located in the orbit and series of ducts that
carry tears into nasal cavity.
– Tears exit lacrimal gland through tiny tubules and
flow downward and medially across the eye.
– Superior and inferior canaliculi collects tears
into lacrimal sac located in groove of lacrimal
bone nasolacrimal duct which empties into
nasal cavity
– Moistens and lubricates surface of the eye
and lining of lids
– Tears contain lysozome – antibacterial
agent reducing risk of eye infections.
Associated with hyperthyroidism and Grave’s disease. In the case of Graves Disease,
the displacement of the eye is due to abnormal connective tissue deposition in the orbit
and extraocular muscles (Epstein et al, 2003) which can be visualized by CT or MRI.
If left untreated, exophthalmos can causes the eye lids to fail to close during sleep
leading to corneal damage. The process that is causing the displacement of the eye may
also compress the optic nerve or ophthalmic artery leading to blindness
Hemianopsia
• Defective vision affecting half of the
visual field
Hyperalgesia
• Heightened sensitivity to pain
Symptoms include pain, and profuse tearing. Can be caused by infection, trauma,
dry eyes, UV exposure, contact lens over-wear, degeneration.
Meniere’s disease is a problem with the inner ear, the part of the ear responsible
for balance as well as hearing. When you have Meniere’s disease, too much
endolymph (fluid) backs up in the canals, a condition called endolymphatic
hydrops. Extra fluid causes pressure to build up, so the canals swell and can’t
work right. This leads to problems with the ear’s hearing and balance systems.
Neuralgia
• Pain resulting from inflammation of a
nerve or a group of nerves.
Trigeminal neuralgia
Neuritis
• Inflammation of a nerve
Optic neuritis is acute visual loss owing
to demyelination of the optic nerve. It
may be an isolated autoimmune
condition or part of multiple sclerosis.
Fortunately, vision recovers to normal or
near normal in over 90% of patients
within six months. No treatment
improves those chances.
Optic neuritis
Otitis media
• Inflammation of the
middle ear
Bacterial or viral infection occurs in the
fluid buildup after a respiratory illness
Otosclerosis
• Formation of spongy bone in the inner
ear, which often causes deafness by
fixing the stapes to the oval window
Treatment
In the early stages of otosclerosis, or when the condition
is mild, you might not need any treatment. Hearing aids
are very useful initially. However, as the calcium buildup
on the stapes progresses you will gradually lose your
hearing. Sodium fluoride tablets have been shown to
help prevent the progression of otosclerosis, but only if
the condition has also affected the inner ear.
At some point, most people usually have an operation -
a stapedectomy or stapedotomy - where a tiny piston
replaces the stapes so that sound can travel to the inner
ear. This operation has a high success rate.
Pterygium
• Abnormally thickened patch of
conjunctiva that extends over part of
the cornea Pterygium occurs more often in people who
spend a great deal of time outdoors, especially
in sunny climates. Long-term exposure to
sunlight, especially ultra-violet (UV) rays, and
chronic eye irritation from dry; dusty conditions
seem to play an important causal role. When a
pterygium becomes red and irritated, topical
eye-drops or ointment may be used to help
reduce the inflammation. If the pterygium is
large enough to threaten sight, is growing or is
unsightly, it can be removed surgically
Retinitis pigmentosa
• Inherited, progressive retinal sclerosis
characterized by pigment deposits in
the retina and by retinal atrophy
In the progression of symptoms for RP, night blindness
generally precedes tunnel vision by years or even decades.
Many people with RP do not become legally blind until their
40s or 50s and retain some sight all their life. Others go
completely blind from RP, in some cases as early as
childhood. Progression of RP is different in each case.
RP is a group of inherited disorders in which abnormalities of
the photoreceptors (rods and cones) or the retinal pigment
epithelium (RPE) of the retina lead to progressive visual
loss. Affected individuals first experience defective dark
adaptation or nyctalopia (night blindness), followed by
constriction of the peripheral visual field and, eventually, loss
of central vision late in the course of the disease.
Retinoblastoma
• Inherited, highly malignant tumor
arising from immature retinal cells
Retinoblastoma is a rare cancer of the
retina (the innermost layer of the eye,
located at the back of the eye, that
receives light and images necessary for
vision). About 300 children will be
diagnosed with retinoblastoma this year. It
accounts for 3 percent of childhood
cancers. Treatments include surgery,
radiation, chemotherapy, laser therapy,
phototherapy, thermal therapy, and
cryotherapy.
Tinnitus
• Ringing or buzzing noise in the ears.