3.

Provides arena needed to defend the body

CONNECTIVE TISSUE against invading organism.

 Connective tissue is composed of cells and

extracellular matrix characterized by an
abundance of extracellular material and a
relative paucity of cells.

 All of the connective tissue in the body are

derived from mesoderm, except for some in
the head that are derived from ectoderm.

 Connective tissues are classified into two

major groups:
CONNECTIVE TISSUE MATRIX
1. CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
1. Ground Substance: An amorphous, homogenous,
2. SPECIAL TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
transparent, and hydrated gel. It consist mainly in
(Cartilage, Bone, Blood, Hematopoietic Tissue
water that is stabilized by proteoglycans, hyaluronic
acid, mineral salts, and glycoproteins.

Proteoglycans – main structural constituents

and are responsible for the gelatinous character of the
ground substance of connective tissue.

1. Glycosaminoglycans (GAG) – are

attached covalently in a radiating substances.
Examples: Hyaluronic acid – Most abundant
GAG in the ground substance of connective
tissue. Extracellular Fibers: Responsible for
the supportive function of the connective
tissue

Three forms of extracellular Fibers:

CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER 1. Collagen fibers (Collagenous Fibers)
 Connective tissue (proper) is found all over 2. Elastic fibers
the body
3. Reticular fibers
 Tag as “Glue” that binds body parts together

 It forms the stroma, which means supporting

framework

 On the other hand, Parenchyma refers to

functional elements of tissue or organ.

 Other functions of connective tissue includes

the following:

Envelops muscle

1. Acts as an avenue for the passage of blood

vessels and nerves.

2. Serves as a venue for the exchange of gases

and substances between blood and basic
tissues
COLLAGEN FIBERS (COLLAGENOUS FIBERS) ELASTIC FIBERS

 These fibers are present in all connective  Fine fibers that average 1.0 um in diameter
tissues, although in differing amounts.
 Imparts yellow color to fresh tissue
 Made up of collagen
 Highly insoluble protein that is responsible for
 Collagenous connective tissue (Ordinary elasticity of elastic fibers.
connective tissue) – most commonly occurring
 Resistant to boiling and hydrolysis by acids
type of connective tissue in the body, THE
and can be hydrolyzed by elastase
MAIN EXTRACELLULAR FIBERS

 They are colorless in vivo, when present in

FORMATION OF ELASTIC FIBERS
abundant amounts, as in tendons, imparts
WHITE COLOR  Elastogenesis – secrete microfibrils, then
aggregate to form bundles
 2 – 10 um in diameter
 Tropoelastin – precursor protein of elastin
 Appears pink in H&E prep because they are
ACIDOPHILIC  Elastin that forms the elastic lamellae in
arteries is synthesized by smooth muscle cells
 Viewed under Light Microscope
RETICULAR FIBERS (RETICULIN FIBERS)
 Most common types of collagen are Types I, II,
III  Also made up of collagen

 Collagen fibers are made up of collagen type I  Type III collagen

 Collagen fibers are slightly flexible but  They are very fine (0.5-2.0 um in diameter)
inelastic
 Tend to branch and anastomose
FORMATION OF COLLAGEN FIBERS
 Referred to as ARGYROPHILIC FIBERS
 Procollagen – precursor of collagen fiber
 React positively with PAS reagent
 Synthesized by fibroblast and mesenchymal
cells

 The matrix of cartilage and bones also contain

collagen fibers – in these tissue, procollagen is
synthesized by cells called Chondroblasts and
Osteoblast.

 Tropocollagen are formed from three

procollagen, these will aggregate to form
collagen microfibrils
 Collagen microfibrils will group together in
parallel fashion to form collagen fibers.
FORMATION OF RETICULAR FIBERS
 Same as collagen fibers but precursors are
synthesized and excreted into intercellular
matrix by specialized fibroblast called
RETICULAR CELLS
CELLS IN CONNECTIVE TISSUE
CAN BE CATERGORIZED INTO
 RESIDENT CELLS – Cells that stay permanently
in connective tissue
Examples: Mesenchymal cells, fibroblast and
fibrocytes, reticular cells, adipose cells, mast cells,
and resident cells
 VISITING CELLS – Cells that are transient in
connective tissue
Examples: Inflammatory macrophages, plasma
cells, and Leukocytes (WBCs)
RESIDENT CELLS
1. MESENCHYMAL CELL
 Multipotential stem cells
 Stem cells of most connect tissue (fibroblast
and fibrocytes, reticular cells, adipose cells,
reticular cells etc)
 Abound in the embryo and in the umbilical
cord
 Light Microscope: Cannot be distinguished
from fibroblast
 Electron Micrographs: Have coarser chromatin
and less developed cytoplasmic organelles
than fibroblast
2. FIBROBLAST AND FIBROCYTES
 Fibroblast are the most abundant cells in
most connective tissue
 Responsible for producing and maintaining
most extracellular components of connective
tissue
 Synthesize organic compounds and precursors
of collagen and elastic fibers
 Capable of Mitosis
 Fibrocytes are considered idle or resting
 Smaller and have fewer processes than
fibroblasts.
 Cytoplasm are acidophilic and nucleus are
compact and dark
 Also called Reticular cells
3. RETICULAR CELLS
 Synthesized the precursor of type III collagen
that make up reticular fibers
 Slightly larger than typical fibroblast
 Most numerous cells in the reticular tissue
VISITING CELLS
4. MACROPHAGES
 These are, phagocytes that are derived from
monocytes. Examples are the ff:
 Skin – Langerhans cells
 Nervous tissue – Microglia
 Bone – Osteoclast
 Connective tissue – histiocytes
 Liver – Kupffer cells
4. MACROPHAGES
 Light Microscopy: Cytoplasm is slightly
basophilic and appears “frothy”
 Ingest and destroy not only bacteria and
exogenous particulate but also dead or drying
cells, and senescent tissue elements.
 Also classified either, Resident or
inflammatory
 Resident macrophages – those inhabit a given
site (not immunologically active)
 Inflammatory macrophages – those response
to a stimulus and are (immunologically active)
5. PLASMA CELLS
 Slightly bigger than RBC
 Strongly basophilic cytoplasm and eccentric
nucleus
 Nucleus has “Clock-face” or “Cartwheel”
appearance
 B lymphocytes (B cells) – produces antibody
 Has a lifespan of 10 to 20 days
 4. LEUKOCYTES or WHITE BLOOD CELLS
 Nucleated cells in blood
 Five types: Neutrophils, Basophils,
Eosinophils, Monocytes and Lymphocytes
 Produced in the bone marrow, EXCEPT
Lymphocytes
 In connective tissue, they exhibit AMOEBOID
MOVEMENT
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 The connective tissues in the body are
categorized based on their cellular and
extracellular composition into numerous types
1. Collagenous
2. Adipose
3. Reticular
4. Elastic
5. Mucous
TYPES OF COLLAGENOUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Grouped into 2 general categories: Loose
Connective Tissue and Dense Connective
Tissue
DENSE COLLAGENOUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Characterized by scanty intercellular ground
ground substance
 Dense irregular – collagen fibers run in
various direction
 Dense regular – collagen fibers are arranged
in the definite pattern
LOOSE COLLAGENOUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 A.K.A Areolar Connective Tissue, Areolar
Tissue
Characterized by high vascularity and abundance of
extracellular substance
ADIPOSE TISSUE
 A connective tissue in which the predominant
cellular element is the fat of adipose cell.
 Represents the largest energy storage site of
the body.
 Male : 12% - 14%; Females : 20% - 25%
 Function: Serves as storage, thermal insulator,
and shock absorber.
 Two types of adipose tissue:
1. Yellow (white) – store lipid in the form of
single fat vacuole
2. Brown – store lipids in the form of droplets
 White adipose tissue synthesize and secrete
hormones, notably leptin (satiety hormone)
 Adipose tissue – considered as endocrine
tissue
 The main function of fat cells in brown
adipose tissue is to produce heat
(thermogenesis)
RETICULAR FIBERS (RETICULIN FIBERS)
 Forms the stroma of supporting framework of
the liver, myeloid tissue, pancreas, lymph
tissues and organs
 CHAPTER 7: BLOOD
MUCOUS TISSUE
 Abundance of amorphous and jelly-like
ground substance
 The ground substance of mucous tissue is
mainly hyaluronic acid
 Common in embryo
 Example: Wharton’s jelly – the connective
tissue present in the umbilical cord.
RBC – Bottom layer accounts 45%
PLASMA
 BLOOD – Loose Connective tissue
 Composed of Extracellular material (Plasma)
and cellular elements or formed elements
(RBCs, WBCs, and Platelets)
 Functions: Transports oxygen from the lungs
and nutrients from the GI tract, carries CO2,
deliver substances (hormones, proteins, etc)
and defends the body against microorganisms
and toxic substances.
 Comprises 8% of a person’s body weight,
 Slightly alkaline with a normal pH of 7.4
 Plasma – yellowish and translucent top layer,
comprises about 54% of the volume
 Buffy coat – grayish white film formed by
platelets and WBC
 Transparent, yellowish fluid
 Examples of plasma proteins: Albumin,
globulins, fibrinogen, lipoproteins, the
complement system, enzymes and hormones.
 Plasma proteins are synthesized by the liver,
EXCEPT for the Gamma globulins – produced
by the plasma cells
 Albumin is the smallest plasma proteins
 Function of albumin: Maintains the colloid
osmotic pressure of blood. Also, binds and
transports molecules.
 Globulins consists of three kinds: Alpha, Beta, SIZES OF THE FORMED ELEMENTS
and Gamma
 RBCs have a diameter of 7.5um, thickness of
 Fibrinogen is the largest plasma proteins and 2.6um but 0.75um thick in the center.
is precursor of fibrin
 Platelets – smallest formed elements
FORMED ELEMENTS
 Platelets are only 2-3 um in diameter
 Composed of RBC (Erythrocytes), WBC
 WBCs:
(Leukocytes), Platelets (thromboplastids)
Neutrophils and Basophils – are of same size
 Romanowsky method – prototypical staining
with 7.0 um in diameter
technique used to distinguish formed
elements of blood and cells in the bone Eosinophils – 9 um in diameter
marrow.
Monocytes – 9-12 um in diameter
 WBCs are classified into two groups: Granular
and Agranular – based on the presence or Lymphocytes – small (6-9 um); Large (9-12
absence of specific granules um)

 Granular – with granules (neutrophil, LIFESPAN OF THE FORMED ELEMENTS

eosinophil, basophil)  RBC – 120 Days
 Agranular – Without granules (monocyte and  Platelets – 9 – 12 days
lymphocyte)
 WBCs:
 There are three types of lymphocytes: T-
lymphocyte (T-cell), B-lymphocyte (B-cell), Neutrophils – 8 hours in blood
Natural Killer Cell (NK cell) Eosinophils – Circulate 1 -2 days, migrates 8-
NUMBER AND VOLUME OF FORMED ELEMENTS 12 days

 RBC normal Value – 4.0-6.0 M/cu mm Basophils – live only for few days

 Platelets – 150,000 – 400,000 /cu mm Monocytes – 1-2days

 WBCs – 4,500 – 10,500/ cu mm Lymphocytes – unknown

 WBC differential count: RED BLOOD CELLS

Neutrophils – 50% - 70%  Unstained RBC is pale yellow or greenish

yellow
Lymphocytes – 20% - 40%
 Stained RBC is Pink
Monocytes – 3% - 7%
 The color of RBC is due to Hemoglobin
Eosinophils – 2% - 5%
 Mature RBCs are anucleated and devoid of
Basophils – 0% - 1% cytoplasmic organelles
Very useful in providing clues into the diagnosis  Reticulocytes are young RBCs which are
and help in monitoring the course of many slightly bigger than the mature ones
diseases.
 Hemoglobin is compose of globin (protein
SHAPES OF THE FORMED ELEMENTS molecule) and heme (iron-containing)
 RBCs are biconcave dics  The normal amount of hemoglobin :
 Platelets are biconvex dics but ovate when  Males: 14-18 grams per 100ml
transverse view
 Females: 12-16 grams per 100ml
 WBCs are spherical
 Hypochromic – less than the normal amount
of hgb
 Hyperchromic – more than the normal
amount of hgb
 Has a cytoskeleton which serves as a
framework to anchor the platelet membrane
and allow signal transduction
 Important in hemostasis

 Anisocytosis – normal variations in size

 Poikilocytosis – normal variations in shape

 Rouleaux formation – adherence of RBC

“Stacking of coins”

NEUTROPHILS

 Has a Fine Specific Granules – specific only in

granulocytes.

 They are actually secretory vesicles

 “Phagocytins”

 It also has Cytoplasmic (Azurophilic Granules)

 ABO Blood Group System: Two kinds
A antigen
B antigen
 ABO system: a person’s plasma contains
naturally occurring antibodies against the
antigens that are not present in the person’s
RBC
 RH Blood Group System
A.K.A Primary Granules
 Contains 2-6 lobes
 In females, 6 out of 500 neutrophils contains
nuclear appendages known as Drumstick or
Barr Body
 The nucleus usually elongated, and
horseshoe-shaped or S-shaped

Rh Positive – Antigen is present

Rh Negative – Antigen is absent

 Rh is not characterize by naturally occurring

antibodies

PLATELETS

 Membrane-bound cell fragments that are

often seen in clumps in blood smears

 Produced by fragmentation of the cytoplasm EOSINOPHILS

of giant cells known as MEGAKARYOCYTES
 Slightly larger than neutrophils
 No nucleus, but has organelles
 Has large specific granules in their cytoplasm
 Electron microscopy reveals: Granules, tubular
 Course, refractile, uniformly-sized and
invaginations (The SCCS).
intensely eosinophilic granules fill the cell.

 Contains 2-3 lobes

 Limited phagocytic ability
 Do not phagocytose bacteria
 Defend body against parasites
 Increases in case of heavy parasitic infestation
and allergy.
BASOPHILS
 As large as Neutrophils
 Specific granules are coarser and blue or dark
purple.
 Water-soluble
 Contains heparin, histamine, and leukotrienes
 Nucleus is usually U-shaped or J-shaped or
Bilobed
 Similar to Mast cells
 Function: when activated, release histamine
and other mediators of inflammation
 Involved in the Hypersensitivity reactions
(Immediate and Anaphylactic Shock)
MONOCYTE
 Bean-shaped or U-shaped nucleus that is
usually eccentrically located.
 Has abundant basophilic cytoplasm
 Function: Serves as precursor cells for
macrophages
 It originates in the bone marrow, stay in blood
for a while, then migrate to connective tissue
where they differentiate into macrophages
LYMPHOCYTES
 Acts as the principal agents of body’s immune
response
 98% of lymphocytes are not in the blood
 Classified according to size: Small (97%) and
Large
 Small lymphocyte has high nucleus:cytoplasm
ratio
 Nucleus is kidney-shaped and contains coarse,
clumpy chromatin granules
 Has no specific granules
 Large lymphocytes contains abundant
cytoplasm that is intensely basophilic
 Large lymphocytes has well-developed
organelles
 Often mistaken for monocytes in routine LM
 Chromatin is less condensed than monocytes
CLASSIFICATION OF LYMPHOCYTES
 Classified into 3 general types:
B-cell
T-cell
NK-cell
IN TERMS OF ANTIGEN RECEPTOR:

 T-cells carries a T-cell antigen receptor

 B-cells carries a B-cell antigen receptor

 NK cell carries Natural Cytotoxicity receptor

(NCR) CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
IN TERMS OF PERCENTAGE:  An organ system that delivers nutrients, oxygen,
hormones, etc.
 T-cells are 80%  It also moves the CO2, and waste and secretory
 B-cells are 15% products
 Aids in fighting off pathogenic microorganism by
NK cells are 5% transporting the cells
 Two related systems:
IN TERMS OF FUNCTION: Cardiovascular system - Blood
 T-cells are responsible for cell-mediated Lymph vascular system – Lymph
 Consist of the heart and the blood vascular
immunity
system, refers to the blood vessels that form a
T-helper cells closed circuit to and from the heart.
 Three types of blood vessels:
Cytotoxic T cells Capillary
Artery
Memory T cells
Vein
Suppressor T cells  The heart and the blood vessels comprise two
continuous system of tubes.
 B-cells are responsible for Humoral Immunity 1. Pulmonary circulation
2. Systemic Ciculation
Plasma cells

Memory B-cells

 Both T cells and B cells are mounting for

decisive immune response

IN TERMS OF FUNCTION:

 NK cells are cytotoxic cells

 These cells destroys tumor cells and cells

infected by viruses
 DO NOT PRODUCE ANTIBODIES
 Effective in containing VIRAL infections
 Also serves as ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS
(APCs)
HEART
 A Hollow muscular organ
 About the size of a clenched fist
 Located in the central mediastinum of the
thoracic cavity.
 Has four chambers:
1. Right and left ventricles
2. Right and left atria
 The chambers of heart are in communication
with the large blood vessels
 Semilunar Valves
  Thinnest histologic layer of the heart
 Lines all the internal surfaces of the heart
 Has 4 histologic layers:
1. Endothelium – adjoins the cardiac lumen
2. Subendothelium – very thin layer
3. Connective tissue – external to subendothelium
4. Subendocardium – external to connective tissue

FLOW OF THE BLOOD TO THE HEART MYOCARDIUM

 Lies external to the endocardium
 Thickest layer of the heart
 Thickest in the left ventricle, thinnest in the
atria
 Consist mainly of Cardiac Muscle Fibers
 Secrete at least two polypeptide hormones:
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)
Brain Natriuretic Peptide (BNP)
EPICARDIUM
 A.K.A Visceral pericardium, forms the
outermost histologic layer of heart.
 Contains a lot of adipose cells

PERICARDIUM
 The heart is enveloped by a connective tissue
called pericardium.
 Consist of two pouches:
Fibrous pericardium – More external; lines
the central
mediastinum
Serous pericardium – has two layers: the
heart and great vessels which
lie of the internal surface
 Pericardial cavity – between parietal and
visceral pericardia which contains pericardial
fluid.
 Mesothelium A.K.A epicardium CARDIAC SKELETON
 The mesothelial cells are serous secreting cells  Term for the dense connective tissue that
responsible for elaborating pericardial fluid forms the central support of the heart.
 Histologic Layers of the Heart  It has 3 components:
Has 3 histologic layers: 1. Septum membranaceum – interventricular
1. Endocardium septum
2. Myocardium 2. Annuli fibrosi – surrounds the AV and
3. Epicardium semilunar orifices
ENDOCARDIUM
 3. Trigona fibrosa – between semilunar and AV  THREE TYPES:
orifices 1. CONTINUOUS (Type 1 capillaries)
- Found in the muscles, lungs, CNS, and skin
IMPULSE-CONDUCTING SYSTEM OF THE HEART 2. FENESTRATED (Type 2 capillaries)
- Found in the mucous membranes of GI tract, many
 “Purkinje fibers” (Purkinje cells; Purkinje endocrine glands, pancreas, and renal glomerulus
cardiomycetes) 3. SINUSOIDAL (Sinusoids, discontinuous capillaries)
 Components: - Found in the parenchyma of some organs examples
Sinoatrial node (SA node) are liver, spleen, bone marrow and certain endocrine
3 internodal tracts, glands.
Atrioventricular node (AV node)
AV bundle of His
2 bundle branches HISTOLOGIC LAYERS OF ARTERIESAND VEINS
Purkinje fibers  THREE TYPES:
1. TUNICA INTIMA (Tunica Interna)
BLOOD - Consist of an endothelium and a
subendothelial layer (subendothelium)
 “Purkinje fibers” (Purkinje cells; Purkinje - “Weibel-Palade Bodies”
cardiomycetes) 2. TUNICA MEDIA
 Components: - made up of concentrically arranged smooth
Sinoatrial node (SA node) muscle fibers.
3 internodal tracts, 3. TUNICA ADVENTITIA (Tunica Interna)
Atrioventricular node (AV node) - Chiefly made up of loose connective tissue
AV bundle of His
2 (Right and Left) bundle branches
Purkinje fibers ARTERIES
 Classified into three types: Small, medium, and
BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM Large
SMALL ARTERIES
 Collective term for all the blood vessels in the  A.K.A Arterioles
body  Tunica intima – consist only of endothelium
 Has three types: Arteries, Veins and Capillaries  Tunica media – consist of single layer of smooth
 In capillaries – Endothelium is the only muscle cells
component  Tunica adventitia – composed of loose
 Arteries and Veins – vessel wall has other connective tissue
components MEDIUM ARTERIES
 A.K.A Muscular Arteries or Distributing Arteries
 Well-developed tunica media that contains
ENDOTHELIUM
numerous muscle fibers
 Serves as a lining material that facilitates the  The called distributing arteries because they
flow of blood through the blood vessels distribute blood to different parts of the body
 It secretes substances important in the VASA VASARUM
regulation of the cardiovascular system  Are small blood vessels that are present within
 Have mitotic capability the wall of large blood vessels
 Classified into three types: Small, medium, and
CAPILLARY Large
LARGE ARTERIES
 Simplest of the blood vessels  Best example is the AORTA
 Very thin wall  Its wall is yellowish due to the presence of an
 7-9um in diameter; lie on a bed of connective abundant amount of elastin
tissue  Tunica intima – consist of endothelium,
 “Heavy traffic” condition subendothelium, and internal elastic
 Disposed in different planes in most tissues membrane
 Pericytes (Cells of Rouget; Mural cells) –  Tunica media – thickest; has elastic lamellae
slender elongated cells, look-like fibroblast.  Tunica adventitia – Contains vasa vasorum

TYPES OF CAPILLARY
  Large arteries are also called: Conducting  Arteriovenous Anastomoses (AV
Arteries Anastomoses; AV shunts) – blood
vessels in the certain regions of the
body
 Portal system – artery of vein that is
VARIATIONS IN ARTERIES in between the capillaries
 Some arteries manifest structural peculiarities
that reflect the vessels’ adaptation to their LYMPHATIC VASCULAR SYSTEMS
location or function
SENSORY ORGANS ASSOCIATED WITH  The lymphatic vascular system, also
ARTERIES known as the lymphatic system, is a
network of tubes that drains fluid
 CAROTID BODIES from blood vessels into tissues and
 AORTIC BODIES returns it to the bloodstream through
 CAROTID SINUES lymph nodes.
 Lymph capillaries – fluid from the
VEINS interstitial space enters this smallest
 Classified into three types: tube and when it enters, it becomes
Lymph
1. Small (Venules)  Lymph Capillaries unite to form small
lymph vessels
2. Medium (medium-sized)

3. Large (Large-sized)

TYPES OF VEINS
SMALL VEINS (VENULES)
 Veins whose diameter is 1.0 mm or
less
 Smallest venules
 Sites for exchange of gases and
substances between blood and the
LYMPH CAPILLARIES
surrounding tissue
MEDIUM VEINS  These are present in all tissues, organs and
 Veins include almost all the named organ systems of the body, except in Cartilage,
veins bone and bone marrow, teeth, placenta, and
 Diameter ranges from 1-9 mm CNS
 LARGE VEINS  Consist of Endothelium
 Examples are Inferior vena cava,
superior vena cava, and pulmonary LYMPHATIC VESSELS
and portal veins
 Lymph vessels can easily be distinguished
 Near their openings into the atria, the
from blood vessels by the large size of their
tunica adventitia of the pulmonary
lumens in relation to the thickness of their
veins, and
walls
 Vena cavae may contain some cardiac  Lymph vessels are interrupted along their
muscle fibers course by Lymph nodes
VENOUS VALVES

Many medium veins provided with LYMPH DUCTS (LYMPHATIC DUCTS)
one-way valve that ensure
unidirectional flow of blood to the  Drain into lymphatic ducts:
heart. Right Lymphatic and Left lymphatic
 Consist of a core of dense connective  RIGHT LYMPHATIC DUCT – smaller and shorter
tissue than thoracic duct. Drains the lymph into the
MODIFICATION IN THE ORGANIZATION OF BLOOD right brachiocephalic vein at the junction of
VESSELS the internal jugular and subclavian veins.
 THORACIC DUCT – collects lymph from the
parts of the body that are not served by
tributaries of the right lymphatic duct. Drains
the lymph into venous system at the junction
of left jugular and subclavian veins