TISSUES

Module

The module correlates the structure of each tissue type with its function. Muscle and nervous
tissue are also covered. The processes of inflammation and tissue repair are explained.

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES

After reading this module, the student should be able to:

Describe the general makeup of a tissue.

Classify epithelial tissues based on the number of cell layers and the shape of the cells.
Relate the structural specializations of epithelial tissue with the functions they perform.
Describe the classification of connective tissue.
Explain the events involved in tissue repair.

TISSUE

A tissue is a group of specialized cells and the

extracellular substances surrounding them.

Histology is the study of tissues.

There are four tissue types in the human

body:

1. Epithelial – a covering or lining tissue

2. Connective – a diverse primary tissue type that makes up part of every organ in
the body
3. Muscle – a tissue that contracts or shortens, making movement possible
4. Nervous – responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities

1. Epithelial Tissues

Epithelium, or epithelial tissue, covers and protects surfaces, both outside and
inside the body.
Included under the classification of epithelial tissue are the exocrine and
endocrine glands.
 Epithelial tissue characteristics
 Mostly composed of cells
 Covers body surfaces
 Distinct cell surfaces
 Cell and matrix connections
 Nonvascular
 Capable of regeneration
 Classification of Epithelia

Functions of Epithelial cells

 Protects underlying structures
 Acts as a barrier
 Permits passage of substances
 Secretes substances
 Absorption of substances

Epithelial tissues are classified primarily according to the number of cell layers and the
shape of the superficial cells.

Classification according to cell layers

1. Simple - consists of a single layer of cells, with each cell extending from the basement
membrane to the free surface.
2. Stratified - consists of more than one layer of cells, but only the basal layer attaches the
deepest layer to the basement membrane
3. Pseudostratified - a special type of simple epithelium, that appears to be falsely stratified.
It consists of one layer of cells, with all the cells attached to the basement membrane.
Due to variations in the shape of the cells, the epithelia appear stratified.

Classification according to cell shape

1. Squamous - are flat or scalelike.

2. Cuboidal- are cube-shaped—about as wide as they are tall.
3. Columnar - tend to be taller than they are wide.
4. Special transitional shape – varies with the degree of stretch

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Simple squamous epithelium is a single layer
of thin, flat cells.
Some substances easily pass through this thin
layer of cells, but other substances do not.
The lungs, simple squamous epithelium, allows for gas exchange.
The kidneys, simple squamous epithelium, helps filter wastes from the blood while
keeping blood cells inside the blood vessels.

Simple Cuboidal epithelium

Simple cuboidal epithelium is a single
layer of cube-like cells that carry out
active transport, facilitated diffusion, or
secretion.
They have a greater secretory capacity
than simple squamous epithelial

Simple Columnar Epithelium

Simple columnar epithelium is a single layer
of tall, thin cells.
The large size of these cells enables them to
perform complex functions, such as secretion.
The simple columnar epithelium of the small
intestine produces and secretes mucus and
digestive enzymes.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Stratified squamous epithelium forms a thick
epithelium because it consists of several
layers of cells.
Though the deepest cells are cuboidal or
columnar and are capable of dividing and
producing new cells, the naming is based on
the shape of the surface cells.
There are two types of stratified squamous
epithelia: keratinized stratified squamous and
nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelia.
 Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium
The outer layer of the skin is comprised of a keratinized squamous epithelium.
The keratin reduces the loss of water from the body

Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

This nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium provides protection against abrasion
and acts as a mechanical barrier. Water, however, can move across it more readily than
across the skin (keratinized stratified squamous).

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Stratified cuboidal epithelium consists of more than one layer of cuboidal epithelial cells.
This epithelial type is relatively rare and is found in sweat gland ducts, ovarian follicular
cells, and the salivary glands. It functions in absorption, secretion, and protection.

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

Stratified columnar epithelium consists of more than one layer of epithelial cells; the
surface cells are columnar but the deeper cells are irregular or cuboidal in shape.
Like stratified cuboidal epithelium, stratified columnar epithelium is relatively rare,
found in the mammary gland ducts, the larynx, and a portion of the male urethra.
This epithelium carries out secretion, protection, and some absorption.

Transitional Epithelium
Transitional epithelium is a special type of
stratified epithelium that can be greatly
stretched. The shape of the cells change as the
epithelium is stretched. Transitional epithelium
lines cavities that can expand greatly, such as
the urinary bladder. It also protects underlying
structures, like the urinary bladder, from the
caustic effects of urine

2. Connective Tissue

Connective tissue is a diverse primary tissue type that makes up part of every organ in the
body. Connective tissue differs from the other three tissue types in that it consists of cells
separated from each other by abundant extracellular matrix. Connective tissue is diverse
in both structure and function. Connective tissue is comprised of cells, protein fibers, and
an extracellular matrix.
Connective tissue is divided into four main categories
a. Connective proper c. Bone
b. Cartilage d. Blood

a. Connective Proper - Connective tissue proper has two subclasses: loose and dense.
Loose connective tissue is divided into 1) areolar, 2) adipose, 3)
reticular. Dense connective tissue is divided into 1) dense regular, 2) dense irregular, 3)
elastic

Areolar Connective Tissue -

Serve as a universal packing
material between other tissues.
The functions of areolar
connective tissue include the
support and binding of other
tissues.

Adipose Connective Tissue- This is loose

connective tissue composed of adipocytes. It is
technically composed of roughly only 80% fat.
Its main role is to store energy in the form of
lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the
body.

Reticular Connective Tissue- This tissue resembles areolar connective tissue, but the only
fibers in its matrix are the reticular fibers, which form a delicate network.
 Dense Regular Connective Tissue-
This consists of closely packed
bundles of collagen fibers running in
the same direction. These collagen
fibers are slightly wavy and can
stretch a little
bit.

Dense Irregular Tissue- This has the same structural elements as dense regular tissue, but the
bundles of collagen fibers are much thicker and arranged irregularly

Elastic Connective Tissue- The main

fibers that form this tissue are elastic in
nature. These fibers allow the tissues to
recoil after stretching. This is especially
seen in the arterial blood vessels and
walls of the bronchial tubes

b. Cartilage- This is a flexible connective tissue

found in many areas in the bodies of humans and
other animals, including the joints between bones,
the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the knee,
the ankle, the bronchial tubes, and the
intervertebral discs

There are three types of cartilage:

 Hyaline - the most abundant type of
cartilage and has many functions, such as
covering the ends of bones, where they
 form joints.
 Fibrocartilage - has more collagen than does hyaline cartilage and is able to
withstand compression and resist tearing or pulling. Fibrocartilage is found in the
disks between the vertebrae (bones of the back) and in some joints, such as the knee
and temporomandibular (jaw) joints.
 Elastic cartilage-. Elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers in addition to collagen and
proteoglycans. The elastic fibers appear as coiled fibers among bundles of collagen
fibers. Elastic cartilage is able to recoil to its original shape when bent. The external
ear, epiglottis, and auditory tube contain elastic cartilage.

c. Bone- Bone is a hard-connective tissue that consists of living cells and a mineralized matrix.
Osteocytes are located within lacunae. The strength and rigidity of the mineralized matrix
enables bones to support and protect other tissues and organs. Two types of bone tissue exist:
spongy bone and compact bone.

d. Blood- This is considered a specialized form of connective tissue that delivers necessary
substances to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells.
Blood is a liquid connective tissue. It contains a liquid matrix, termed the plasma, along with
formed elements. The formed elements are erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. It
functions in transport of food, oxygen, waste, hormones, and other substances.

3. Muscle Tissue
The main function of muscle tissue is to contract or shorten making movement possible.
Muscle contraction results from contractile proteins located within the muscle cells.

Three types of muscle tissue

a. Skeletal
Skeletal muscle cells or fibers appear striated, cells are large, long and cylindrical
with many nuclei. Skeletal muscle cells are striated, or banded, because of the
arrangement of contractile proteins within the cells.
b. Cardiac
Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical and striated and have a single nucleus, they
are branched and connected to one another by intercalated disks, which contain
gap junctions.
c. Smooth
Smooth muscle cells are tapered at each end, are not straited and have a single
nucleus. Smooth muscle is responsible for a number of functions, such as
moving food through the digestive tract and emptying the urinary bladder.
Smooth muscle cells are tapered at each end, have a single nucleus, and are not
striated.
4. Nervous Tissue
 Nervous tissue forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
  It is responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities.
 Nervous tissue consists of neurons and support cells, termed glial cells.
 The neuron is responsible for conducting action potentials.
 It is composed of three parts: a cell body, dendrites, and an axon.

Types of Nervous Tissue

1. Neurons- are cells that can transmit signals called nerve impulses, or action
potentials.

These are the different types of neurons:

Sensory, or afferent neurons, relay information from the PNS to the CNS;
different types of sensory neurons can detect temperature, pressure,
and light
Motor, or efferent neurons, send signals from the CNS to the PNS; these
signals provide information to sensory neurons to “tell” them what to
do (e.g., initiate muscle movement).
Interneurons connect sensory and motor neurons to the brain and
spinal cord; they act as connectors to form neural circuits and are
involved with reflex actions and higher brain functions like decision-
making
2. Neuroglia- are cells that support neurons, supply them with nutrients, and get
rid of dead cells and pathogens such as bacteria.
TISSUE MEMBRANES
A tissue membrane is a thin sheet or layer of tissue that covers a structure or lines a cavity.
There are four tissue membranes in the body, one external and three internal.

External tissue membrane is the skin or the cutaneous membrane

The three major categories of internal tissue membranes are mucous, serous and synovial
membranes.
 Three major categories of internal tissue membranes
MUCOUS MEMBRANES The mucous membranes line cavities that open to the outside of the
body, such as the digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts.
SEROUS MEMBRANES serous membranes line cavities that do not open to the exterior of the
body, such as the pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities.
SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES The synovial membrane makes synovial fluid, which has a lubricating
function.

Glands are secretory organs. Glands are composed primarily of epithelium, with a supporting network
of connective tissue. These glands develop from an infoldings or out folding of epithelium in the embryo.
If the gland maintains an open contact with the epithelium from which it developed, a duct is present.
Glands with ducts are called exocrine glands. Both the glands and their ducts are lined with epithelium.
Alternatively, some glands become separated from the epithelium of their origin and have no ducts;
these are called endocrine glands. Endocrine glands have extensive blood vessels. The cellular products
of endocrine glands, which are called hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and carried through
out the body.
 The diagram below describes the process of inflammation in
response to tissue damage.

1. A splinter in the skin causes damage and introduces bacteria.

Chemical mediators of inflammation are released or activated in
injured tissues and adjacent blood vessels. Some blood vessels
rupture causing bleeding

2. Chemical mediators cause capillaries to dilate and

the skin to become red. Chemical mediators also 3. White blood cells leave the dilated blood
increase capillary permeability, and fluid leaves the vessels and move to the site of bacterial
capillaries , producing swelling. infection, where they begin to phagocytize
bacteria and other debris.
Repair, sometimes called healing,
refers to the restoration of tissue
architecture and function after an
injury.

1. Which among the three types of cartilage has the ability to withstand
compression and resist tearing or pulling
a. Hyaline c. Elastic cartilage
b. Fibrocartilage d. Muscles
2. Which among the three types of neurons relay information from the PNS to the
CNS
a. Sensory or afferent neurons c. Interneurons
b. Motor or efferent neurons d. Neurons
3. Tendons and ligaments are made of tissue that has a high tensile strength. What type of tissue
makes up tendons and ligaments.
a. Cartilage c. Epithelial
b. Dense
4. Which type of connective tissue serve as a universal packing material between other tissues?
a. Adipose c. Reticular
b. Areolar d. Dense
5. This is a flexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other
animals?
a. Cartilage c. Blood
b. Bone d. Muscles
6. Which of the following is considered a specialized form of connective tissue?
a. Cartilage c. Blood
b. Bone d. Muscles
7. Which of the following statements best describes simple squamous epithelium?
a. Simple squamous epithelium is a single layer of thin, flat cells.
 b. The large size of these cells enables them to perform complex functions, such as
secretion.
c. The outer layer of the skin is comprised of a keratinized squamous epithelium.
d. They have a greater secretory capacity than simple squamous epithelial
8. Which of the four tissue types in human body contracts or shortens making movement possible?
a. Epithelial c. Muscle
b. Connective d. Nervous
9. A thin sheet or layer of tissue that covers a structure or lines a cavity
a. Tissue membrane c. Skeletal Muscle
b. Cartilage d. Bone
10. Which among the following statements best describes serous membranes?
a. Line cavities that open to the outside of the body, such as the digestive, respiratory, and
reproductive tracts.
b. Line cavities that do not open to the exterior of the body, such as the pericardial,
pleural, and peritoneal cavities.
c. Makes synovial fluid, which has a lubricating function.
d. None of the above