Summary

4.1 Tissues and Histology (p. 104)

1. Tissues are collections of similar cells and the extracellular substances surrounding them.
2. The four primary tissue types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.
3. Histology is the microscopic study of tissues.

4.2 Embryonic Tissue (p. 104)

All four of the primary tissue types are derived from each of the three
germ layers (mesoderm, ectoderm, and endoderm).

4.3 Epithelial Tissue (p. 105)

1. Epithelium consists of cells with little extracellular matrix. It covers surfaces, usually has a basement membrane, and does not
have blood vessels.
2. The basement membrane is secreted by the epithelial cells and attaches the epithelium to the underlying tissues.

Functions of Epithelial Tissues

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Epithelial tissues protect underlying structures, act as barriers, permit some substances to pass through epithelial layers, secrete
substances, and absorb substances.

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Classification of Epithelial Tissues

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1. Simple epithelium has a single layer of cells, stratified epithelium has two or more layers, and pseudostratified epithelium has a
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single layer that appears stratified.
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2. Cells can be squamous (flat), cuboidal, or columnar.
3. Stratified squamous epithelium can be nonkeratinized or keratinized.
4. Transitional epithelium is stratified, with cells that can change shape from cuboidal to flattened.
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Functional Characteristics
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1. Simple epithelium is usually involved in diffusion, filtration, secretion, or absorption. Stratified epithelium serves a protective role.
Squamous cells function in diffusion and filtration. Cuboidal or columnar cells, with a larger cell volume that contains many
organelles, secrete or absorb.
2. A smooth free surface reduces friction (mesothelium and endothelium), microvilli increase absorption (intestines), and cilia move
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materials across the free surface (respiratory tract and uterine tubes). Transitional epithelium has a folded surface that allows the
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cell to change shape, and the number of cells making up the epithelial layers changes.
3. Cells are bound together mechanically by glycoproteins, desmosomes, and adhesion belts and to the basement membrane by
hemidesmosomes. Tight junctions form a permeability barrier, and gap junctions allow intercellular communication.
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Glands
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1. Glands are organs that secrete. Exocrine glands secrete through ducts, and endocrine glands release hormones that are absorbed
directly into the blood.
2. Glands are classified as unicellular or multicellular. Goblet cells are unicellular glands. Multicellular exocrine glands have ducts,
which are simple or compound. The ducts can be tubular or end in small sacs (acini or alveoli). Tubular glands can be straight or
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coiled.
3. Glands are classified according to their mode of secretion. Merocrine glands (pancreas) secrete substances as they are produced,
apocrine glands (mammary glands) accumulate secretions that are released when a portion of the cell pinches off, and holocrine
glands (sebaceous glands) accumulate secretions that are released when the cell ruptures and dies.

4.4 Connective Tissue (p. 115)

Connective tissue is distinguished by its extracellular matrix.

Functions of Connective Tissue

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 Connective tissues enclose and separate organs and tissues; connect tissues to one another; help support and move body parts; store
compounds;
cushion and insulate the body; transport substances; and protect against toxins and injury.

Cells of Connective Tissue

1. The extracellular matrix results from the activity of specialized connective tissue cells; in general, -blast cells form the matrix,
-cyte cells maintain it, and -clast cells break it down. Fibroblasts form protein fibers of many connective tissues, osteoblasts form
bone, and chondroblasts form cartilage.
2. Connective tissue commonly contains adipocytes, mast cells, white blood cells, macrophages, and mesenchymal cells (stem cells).

Extracellular Matrix
1. The major components of the extracellular matrix of connective tissue are protein fibers, ground substance, and fluid.
2. Protein fibers of the matrix have the following characteristics:
■ Collagen fibrils are joined to form collagen fibers. The collagen fibers resemble ropes. They are strong and flexible but resist
stretching.
■ Reticular fibers are fine collagen fibers that form a branching network that supports other cells and tissues.
■ Elastic fibers have a structure similar to that of a spring. After being stretched, they tend to return to their original shape.
3. Ground substance has the following major components:
■ Hyaluronic acid makes fluids slippery.

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■ Proteoglycan aggregates trap water, which gives tissues the capacity to return to their original shape when compressed or

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deformed.

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■ Adhesive molecules hold proteoglycans together and to plasma membranes.

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Connective Tissue Classifications

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Connective tissue is classified according to the type and proportions of cells and extracellular matrix fibers, ground substance, and
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1. Embryonic connective tissue is called mesenchyme, consists of irregularly shaped cells and abundant matrix, and gives rise to
adult connective tissue.
2. Adult connective tissue consists of connective tissue proper, supporting connective tissue, and fluid connective tissue.
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Connective Tissue Proper

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1. Loose connective tissue

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■ Areolar connective tissue has many different cell types and a random arrangement of protein fibers with space between the
fibers. This tissue fills spaces around the organs and attaches the skin to underlying tissues.
■ Adipose tissue has adipocytes filled with lipid and very little extracellular matrix (a few reticular fibers). It functions in energy
storage, insulation, and protection. Adipose tissue can be yellow or brown. Brown adipose tissue is specialized for generating
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heat.
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■ Reticular tissue is a network of reticular fibers; it forms the framework of lymphatic tissue, bone marrow, and the liver.
2. Dense connective tissue
■ Dense regular connective tissue is composed of fibers arranged in one direction, which provides strength in a direction parallel
to the fiber orientation. Two types of dense regular connective tissue exist: collage- nous (tendons and most ligaments) and
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elastic (ligaments of vertebrae).

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■ Dense irregular connective tissue has fibers organized in many directions, which produces strength in different directions. Two
types of dense irregular connective tissue exist: collagenous (capsules of organs and dermis of skin) and elastic (large arteries).

Supporting Connective Tissue

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1. Cartilage
■ Cartilage has a relatively rigid matrix composed of protein fibers and proteoglycan aggregates. The major cell type is the
chondrocyte, which is located within lacunae.
■ Hyaline cartilage has evenly dispersed collagen fibers that provide rigidity with some flexibility. Examples include the costal
cartilage, the covering over the ends of bones in joints, the growing portion of long bones, and the embryonic skeleton.
■ Fibrocartilage has collagen fibers arranged in thick bundles; it can withstand great pressure, and it is found between vertebrae,
in the jaw, and in the knee.
■ Elastic cartilage is similar to hyaline cartilage, but it contains elastin. It is more flexible than hyaline cartilage and is found in
the external ear.
2. Bone
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 ■ Bone cells, or osteocytes, are located in lacunae surrounded by a mineralized matrix (hydroxyapatite) that makes bone very
hard. Spongy bone has spaces between bony trabeculae; compact bone is more solid.
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Fluid Connective Tissue

1. Blood
■ Blood cells are suspended in a fluid matrix.
2. Hemopoietic tissue
■ Hemopoietic tissue forms blood cells.

4.5 Muscle Tissue (p. 126)

1. Muscle tissue has the ability to contract.
2. Skeletal (striated voluntary) muscle attaches to bone and is responsible for body movement. Skeletal muscle cells are long and
cylindrically shaped with many peripherally located nuclei.
3. Cardiac (striated involuntary) muscle cells are cylindrical, branching cells with a single, central nucleus. Cardiac muscle is found
in the heart and is responsible for pumping blood through the circulatory system.
4. Smooth (nonstriated involuntary) muscle forms the walls of hollow organs, the iris of the eye, and other structures. Its cells are
spindle-shaped with a single, central nucleus.

4.6 Nervous Tissue (p. 129)

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1. Nervous tissue is able to conduct electrical impulses and is composed of neurons (conductive cells) and glia (support cells).

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2. Neurons have cell processes called dendrites and axons. Dendrites receive electrical impulses, and axons conduct them. Neurons

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can be multipolar (several dendrites and an axon), bipolar (one dendrite and one axon), or pseudo-unipolar (one axon).

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4.7 Tissue Membranes (p. 131)
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1. There are four tissue membranes in the body, one external (skin) and three internal (mucous, serous, synovial).
2. Mucous membranes consist of epithelial cells, their basement membrane, the lamina propria, and sometimes smooth muscle cells;
they line cavities that open to the outside and often contain mucous glands, which secrete mucus.
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3. Serous membranes line cavities that do not open to the exterior and do not contain glands but do secrete serous fluid.
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4. Synovial membranes are formed by connective tissue, line joint cavities, and secrete a lubricating fluid.
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4.8 Tissue Damage and Inflammation (p. 132)

1. Inflammation involves a response that isolates injurious agents from the rest of the body and destroys the injurious agent.
2. Inflammation produces five symptoms: redness, heat, swelling, pain, and disturbed function.
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4.9 Tissue Repair (p. 132)

1. Tissue repair is the substitution of viable cells for dead ones. Tissue repair occurs by regeneration or replacement.
■ Labile cells divide throughout life and can undergo regeneration.
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■ Stable cells do not ordinarily divide after growth is complete but can regenerate if necessary.
■ Permanent cells cannot replicate. If killed, permanent tissue is repaired by replacement.
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2. Tissue repair by primary union occurs when the edges of the wound are close together. Secondary union occurs when the edges are
far apart.

4.10 Effects of Aging on Tissues (p. 135)

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1. Age-related changes in tissues result from reduced rates of cell division and changes in the extracellular fibers.
2. Collagen fibers become less flexible and have reduced strength.
3. Elastic fibers become fragmented and less elastic.

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 REVIEW AND COMPREHENSION
1. Given these characteristics:
(1) capable of contraction
(2) covers free body surfaces
(3) lacks blood vessels
(4) composes various glands
(5) anchored to connective tissue by a basement membrane
Which of these are characteristics of epithelial tissue?
a. 1,2,3
b. 2,3,5
c. 3,4,5
d. 1,2,3,4
e. 2,3,4,5 – CORRECT ANSWER
EPITHELIAL TISSUE COVERS FREE BODY SURFACES, LACKS BLOOD VESSELS, COMPOSES VARIOUS GLANDS AND
IS ANCHORED TO CONNECTIVE TISSUE BY A BASEMENT MEMBRANE.

2. THE MESODERM IS AN embryonic germ layer that gives rise to muscle, bone, and blood vessels.
a. ectoderm

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b. endoderm
c. mesoderm – CORRECT ANSWER

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3. A tissue that covers a surface, is one cell layer thick, and is composed of flat cells is SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM.

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a. simple squamous epithelium. – CORRECT ANSWER
b. simple cuboidal epithelium. rs e
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c. simple columnar epithelium.
d. stratified squamous epithelium.
e. transitional epithelium.
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4. Stratified epithelium is usually found in areas of the body where the principal activity is PROTECTION.
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a. filtration.
b. protection. – CORRECT ANSWER
c. absorption.
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d. diffusion.
e. secretion.
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5. Which of these characteristics do not describe nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium?

a. many layers of cells
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b. flat surface cells

c. living surface cells
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d. found in the skin – CORRECT ANSWER

e. outer layers covered by fluid
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6. In parts of the body where considerable expansion occurs, such as the urinary bladder, which type of epithelium would you expect
to find? TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM.

a. cuboidal
b. pseudostratified
c. transitional – CORRECT ANSWER
d. squamous
e. columnar

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 7. Epithelial cells with microvilli are most likely found LINING THE SMALL INTESTINE.
a. lining blood vessels.
b. lining the lungs.
c. lining the uterine tube.
d. lining the small intestine. – CORRECT ANSWER
e. in the skin.
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8. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium can be found lining the TRACHEA.
a. digestive tract.
b. trachea. – CORRECT ANSWER
c. thyroid gland.
d. kidney tubules.
e. urinary bladder.

9. A type of cell connection whose only function is to prevent the cells from coming apart is a DESMOSOME.
a. desmosome. – CORRECT ANSWER
b. gap junction.
c. tight junction.

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10. The glands that lose their connection with epithelium during embryonic development and secrete their cellular products into the

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bloodstream are called ENDOCRINE glands.

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a. apocrine
b. endocrine – CORRECT ANSWER

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c. exocrine
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d. holocrine
e. merocrine
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11. A COMPOUND ACINAR gland has a duct that branches repeatedly, and the ducts end in saclike structures.
a. simple tubular
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b. compound tubular
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c. simple coiled tubular

d. simple acinar
e. compound acinar – CORRECT ANSWER
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12. The fibers in dense connective tissue are produced by FIBROBLASTS.

a. fibroblasts. – CORRECT ANSWER
b. adipocytes.
c. osteoblasts.
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d. osteoclasts.
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e. macphages.

13. Mesenchymal cells DO ALL OF THE BELOW:

a. form embryonic connective tissue.
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b. give rise to all adult connective tissues.

c. in adults produce new connective tissue cells in response to injury.
d. All of these are correct. – CORRECT ANSWER

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 14. A tissue with a large number of collagen fibers organized parallel to each other would most likely be found in A TENDON.
a. a muscle.
b. a tendon. – CORRECT ANSWER
c. adipose tissue.
d. a bone.
e. cartilage.

15. Extremely delicate fibers that make up the framework for organs such as the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes are RETICULAR
FIBERS.
a. elastic fibers.
b. reticular fibers. – CORRECT ANSWER
c. microvilli.
d. cilia.
e. collagen fibers.

16. In which of these locations is dense irregular elastic connective tissue found? LARGE ARTERIES
a. ligaments
b. nuchal ligament

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c. dermis of the skin

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d. large arteries – CORRECT ANSWER

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e. adipose tissue

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17. Which of these is not true of adipose tissue? D IS NOT TRUE ABOUT ADIPOSE TISSUE.

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a. It is the site of energy storage.
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b. It is a type of connective tissue.
c. It acts as a protective cushion.
d. Brown adipose is found only in older adults. – CORRECT ANSWER
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e. It functions as a heat insulator.

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18. Which of these types of connective tissue has the smallest amount of extracellular matrix? ADIPOSE IS A CONNECTIVE
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TISSUE WITH THE SMALLEST AMOUNT OF EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX.

a. adipose – CORRECT ANSWER
b. bone
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c. cartilage
d. loose connective tissue
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e. blood

19. Fibrocartilage is found BETWEEN VERTEBRAE.

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a. in the cartilage of the trachea.

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b. in the rib cage.

c. in the external ear.
d. on the surface of bones in movable joints.
e. between vertebrae. – CORRECT ANSWER
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20. A tissue composed of cells located in lacunae surrounded by a hard matrix of hydroxyapatite is BONE.
a. hyaline cartilage.
b. bone. – CORRECT ANSWER
c. nervous tissue.
d. dense regular collagenous connective tissue.
e. fibrocartilage.

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 21. Which of these characteristics apply to smooth muscle? SMOOTH MUSCLE IS UNSTRIATED AND INVOLUNTARY.
a. striated, involuntary
b. striated, voluntary
c. unstriated, involuntary – CORRECT ANSWER
d. unstriated, voluntary

22. Which of these statements about nervous tissue is not true? C IS NOT TRUE ABOUT NERVOUS TISSUE.
a. Neurons have cytoplasmic extensions called axons.
b. Electrical signals (action potentials) are conducted along axons.
c. Bipolar neurons have two axons. – CORRECT ANSWER
d. Neurons are nourished and protected by glia.
e. Dendrites receive electrical signals and conduct them toward the cell body.

23. The linings of the digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive passages are composed of MUCOUS MEMBRANES.
a. serous membranes.
b. mucous membranes. – CORRECT ANSWER
c. mesothelium.
d. synovial membranes.

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e. endothelium.

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24. Chemical mediators INITIATE PROCESSES THAT LEAD TO EDEMA.

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a. cause blood vessels to constrict.

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b. decrease the permeability of blood vessels.

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c. initiate processes that lead to edema. – CORRECT ANSWER
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d. help prevent clotting.
e. decrease pain.
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25. Which of these types of cells is labile? SKIN CELLS ARE LABILE.
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a. neuron
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b. skin – CORRECT ANSWER

c. liver
d. pancreas
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26. Permanent cells ARE USUALLY REPLACED BY A DIFFERENT CELL TYPE IF THEY ARE DESTROYED.
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a. divide and replace damaged cells in replacement tissue repair.

b. form granulation tissue.
c. are responsible for removing scar tissue.
d. are usually replaced by a different cell type if they are destroyed. – CORRECT ANSWER
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e. are replaced during regeneration tissue repair.

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Answers in appendix E
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 CRITICAL THINKING

1. Given the observation that a tissue has more than one layer of cells lining a free surface, (1) list the possible tissue types that exhibit
those characteristics, and (2) explain what additional observations are needed to identify the tissue type. The tissue is epithelial
tissue because it is lining a free surface, and the epithelium is stratified because it consists of more than one layer. The types
of stratified epithelium are stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal, stratified columnar, and transitional epithelium. The
structure of the cells in the surface layers determines the tissue type. Flat cells in the surface layer indicate stratified
squamous epithelium. Cuboidal cells in the surface layer indicate stratified cuboidal epithelium, and columnar cells in the
surface layer point to stratified columnar epithelium. The surface cells of transitional epithelium are roughly cuboidal with
cubelike or columnar cells beneath them. When transitional epithelium is stretched, the surface cells are still roughly
cuboidal, but underlying layers can be somewhat flattened.

2. A patient suffered from kidney failure a few days after being exposed to a toxic chemical. A biopsy of his kidney indicated that
many of the thousands of epithelium-lined tubules making up the kidney had lost their simple cuboidal epithelial cells, although
the basement membranes appeared mostly intact. How likely is a full recovery for this person? In general, epithelial cells
undergo cell division (mitosis) in response to injury, and the newly produced cells replace the damaged cells. However, if the
basement membrane is destroyed, nothing is present to provide scaffolding for the newly formed epithelial cells. Without the
basement membrane, there is no effective way for the newly formed epithelial cells to repair a structure, such as a kidney

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tubule. Since the basement membranes appear mostly intact, the person is likely to survive, and the kidney will regain most

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of its ability to function.

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3. Willie B. Coffin has smoked for years. In the past few months, mucus has accumulated in his lungs and he coughs often. A tissue

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sample (biopsy) taken from the lower portion of his trachea indicated that stratified squamous epithelium has replaced the normal

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pseudostratified columnar epithelium lining the trachea. Willie’s physician explained that he has bronchitis, inflammation of the
respiratory airways, caused by smoking. As a result, some of the normal epithelium of the large respiratory passageways has been
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converted to stratified squamous epithelium. Explain why mucus has accumulated in Willie’s lungs to a greater degree than
normal. Pseudostratified squamous epithelium has goblet cells that secrete mucus. The cilia move the mucus over the surface
of the epithelium toward the upper portion of the trachea. Stratified squamous epithelium does not secrete abundant mucus,
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and it does not have cilia. Consequently, mucus secreted by the area of the trachea that is still lined by pseudostratified
columnar epithelium is not moved over the portion of the trachea lined by stratified squamous epithelium. The mucus
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accumulates below the area of the trachea lined by stratified squamous epithelium, causing Willie’s frequent cough.
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4. How can you distinguish between a gland that produces a merocrine secretion and a gland that produces a holocrine secretion?
Assume that you have the ability to chemically analyze the composition of the secretions. Glands producing merocrine
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secretions do so with no loss of actual cellular material, whereas glands producing holocrine secretions shed entire cells. The
cells rupture and die, and the entire cell becomes part of the secretion. You can chemically analyze the secretions for the
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types of molecules found in cellular organelles. For example, if phospholipids and proteins normally found in membranes are
in the secretion, the secretion is a holocrine secretion. If the secretion is watery or contains products that are not found in
membranes or organelles, it is a merocrine secretion.
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5. Name a tissue that has the following characteristics: abundant extracellular matrix consisting almost entirely of collagen fibers that
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are parallel to each other. Then state which of the following injuries results from damage to this kind of tissue: dislocated neck
vertebrae, torn tendon, or ruptured intervertebral disk. The tissue described is dense, regularly arranged, collagenic connective
tissue. Injury to this type of tissue affects structures made up of this type of connective tissue, which includes tendons.
Damage to neck vertebrae can be ruled out because they are connected by ligaments containing abundant dense, regularly
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arranged elastic connective tissue. A ruptured intervertebral disk is not indicated because it would consist of dense,
irregularly arranged collagenic connective tissue.

6. Antihistamines block the effect of a chemical mediator called histamine, which is released during the inflammatory response. What
effect does administering antihistamines have on the inflammatory response, and is the use of an antihistamine beneficial?
Histamine is one of the mediators of inflammation released in response to tissue damage. However, several other chemical
mediators are also released. Antihistamines might reduce the inflammatory response somewhat, but they are not likely to
have a major effect because of the other chemical mediators released at the same time. In certain types of inflammatory
responses, such as allergic responses, histamines are released in large amounts. Under these conditions, antihistamines do
reduce the inflammatory response.
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