The Autonomic

Nervous System
Alex Imalingat OJ
Learning objectives
• List the divisions of the ANS and the general functions of each.
• Describe the mechanisms of neurotransmitter release in the
ANS, and explain the effects of neurotransmitters on target
organs and tissues.
• Describe the types of sympathetic and parasympathetic
receptors and their associated neurotransmitters.
• Describe the innervation patterns of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions of the ANS.
Introduction
• The part of the nervous system that controls muscles of internal
organs (such as the heart, blood vessels, lungs, stomach, and
intestines) and glands (such as salivary glands and sweat glands).
• The two divisions of the autonomic nervous system are
• Sympathetic Nervous System
• Parasympathetic Nervous System
• The enteric nervous system of the GIT, is also considered part of the ANS.
• All systems have general visceral efferent (GVE) and general visceral
afferent (GVA) components
• Usually have opposing effects
• May also work independently
• Some structures innervated by only one division
• Sometimes work together in complex processes
• Primarily considered a two neuron chain motor system
Introduction – cont’d
• It is a control system that acts largely
unconsciously and regulates bodily functions,
such as the heart rate, digestion, respiratory
rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual
arousal.
• This system is the primary mechanism in control
of the fight-or-flight response.
Introduction – cont’d
• Autonomic nervous system consists of:
1)Motor neurons which act on smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and exocrine glands

2) “Preganglionic” CNS neurons whose axons synapse on these motor neurons

3) Visceral sensory neurons

4) Branches and subsets of external-sensing neurons (including somatosensory ,

olfactory, and retinal)

• Autonomic postganglionic neurons release neurotransmitters which act

through metabotropic receptors on target cells

• Autonomic responses are coordinated with one another and with

behavioral responses and emotions through the hypothalamus in the
CNS
Sympathetic Nervous System
• Also called Thoracolumbar system
• All preganglionic sympathetic fibers
• Arises from lateral horn of spinal cord
• Leave the spinal cord with the ventral roots of the
spinal nerve
• Cell body located in gray matter from T1-L2

• Sympathetic trunk extend the entire length of

spinal cord
• Post ganglionic fibers pass to effector organ
Sympathetic Nervous System
All preganglionic sympathetic fibers are:
• Short
• Myelinated
• Type B fiber
• Leave the spinal cord via ventral root
• Pass via the white rami communicates to the
paravertebral ganglia
• Terminates in sympathetic ganglia
• Synapses with postganglionic neurons
Sympathetic Nervous System
• Destination of the preganglionic fibers after reaching
the sympathetic trunk
• Preganglionic fibres after reaching the sympathetic
trunk may-
1. Terminate in the same ganglia that it enters
2. Pass upward & terminate in the other ganglia
3. Pass downward & terminate in the other ganglia
4. Leave the sympathetic trunk without synapsing & terminate
in other ganglia which lies out side the sympathetic trunk
Sympathetic Ganglia
• Ganglia: Structures where synapsing between
pre and post ganglionic fibers occurs
• One preganglionic fiber synapses with several
post ganglionic neurons
• Important groups of sympathetic ganglia are-
1. Sympathetic trunk (Paravertebral ganglia)
2. Prevertebral ganglia
3. Peripheral ganglia
Sympathetic Trunk Ganglia
Postganglionic Sympathetic Neuron
• All Postganglionic Sympathetic Neuron arises from
sympathetic ganglia
• Cell body located in ganglion
• These are -
 Short &
 Nonmyelinated
 Type C fibers
Postganglionic Sympathetic Neuron
Postganglionic Sympathetic Fibers may-
1. Pass through gray ramus communicantes and re-
enter ventral root to reach a spinal nerve
2. Reach a cranial nerve through communicating branch
& distributed through it
3. Pass into a vascular branch and distributed to
branches of vessels
4. Innervate the visceral organs
Preganglionic and ganglionic neurons of
the autonomic nervous system
 Organization of the sympathetic
division
• Preganglionic neurons synapse on ganglionic neurons
1. Sympathetic chain ganglia—interconnected ganglia on each side of
vertebral column
2. Collateral ganglia innervate abdomino-pelvic tissues
Include celiac ganglia, superior mesenteric ganglia, and inferior
mesenteric ganglia

• Preganglionic neurons synapse on ganglionic neurons

3. Adrenal medullae—modified sympathetic ganglia; secrete
neurotransmitters into bloodstream that act as hormones

• Have short preganglionic fibers and long post-ganglionic fibers

Organization of the sympathetic division
Effect of Sympathetic stimulation
• In general, the SNS is said to mediate stress responses, such
as the classic fight-or-flight response, and the PNS mediates
“vegetative” responses, such as digestion.
• The fight-or-flight response is a generalized reaction to extreme
fear, stress, or physical activity.
• Response to acute stress in which general­ized sympathetic
activation occurs, results in effects such as elevated heart rate,
cardiac output, and blood pressure, bronchial dilation, dilation
of the pupils (mydriasis), vasoconstriction in much of the body,
piloerection, and inhibition of gastrointestinal motility.
• The acute stress responses also involve activation of the
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical endocrine axis.
Parasympathetic division
• Predominates under resting
conditions
• Also called cranio-sacral
division Axons emerge from
brainstem nuclei and lateral gray
horns of sacral segments of spinal
cord
• Axons innervate ganglia close to
or within target organs
• Parasympathetic fibers carried in
cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
and sacral nerves S2, S3, and S4
 The parasympathetic division has
terminal or intramural ganglia
Organization of the parasympathetic division
• Typical preganglionic fiber synapses on six to eight ganglionic neurons
1. Terminal ganglia
• Located near target organ
• Usually paired
• Examples: parasympathetic ganglia associated with cranial nerves

2. Intramural ganglia (murus, wall)

• Embedded in tissues of target organ
• Typically consist of interconnected masses and clusters of ganglion cells

• Typical preganglionic fiber synapses on six to eight ganglionic neurons

• Others: ciliary ganglion, pterygopalatine and submandibular ganglia, otic
ganglia
The parasympathetic nervous system
Organization of the parasympathetic
division
Summary comparison of sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions
Summary comparison of sympathetic
and parasympathetic divisions
ANS divisions - Enteric nervous
system (ENS)
• Extensive network of neurons
and nerve networks in walls of
digestive tract
• Initiates/coordinates many
complex local visceral reflexes
with no CNS input
• Influenced by sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions
• ~100 million neurons—at least
as many as spinal cord
• Same neurotransmitters as brain
SENSORY INPUTS TO AUTONOMIC FUNCTION
• Our bodies sense deleterious changes and undertake automatic
responses to maintain homeostasis.
• Sensory inputs eliciting autonomic responses include:
1) External sensations which trigger corrective reflexes
• Examples:
a) Ocular reflexes -- pupil dilation or constriction in
response to light, lens stretching to adjust focus
b) Painful laceration -- vasoconstriction to limit blood loss,
sympathetic activation of coordinated fight/flight responses.
SENSORY INPUTS TO AUTONOMIC FUNCTION
2) Visceral sensations induce homeostatic responses
• Examples:
a) Opposing sympathetic/parasympathetic control of
heartbeat and blood pressure --If sympathetic activity drives
heartbeat and artery constriction too much, pressure-sensitive
sensory afferents in the aorta trigger the baroreceptor
reflex, which includes parasympathetic vagal input to heart and
induction of arterial dilation
• Reciprocally, pressure-sensitive sensory afferents in the cardiac
right atrium sense distention triggering the right atrial reflex,
by which sympathetic accelerator nerve firing speeds rate
b) Irritants to oronasal cavities act through parasympathetic
ganglia to trigger nasal and lacrimal glandular secretions
 Membrane receptors at target organs
mediate the effects of sympathetic and
parasympathetic stimulation
Neurotransmitter release in sympathetic division
• Effects result from norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (E) binding
to adrenergic receptors in target cell plasma membrane
• Two types of adrenergic receptors: alpha receptors and beta
receptors
• Norepinephrine stimulates alpha receptors more than beta receptors
• Epinephrine stimulates both types
• Generalized sympathetic activation and release of NE/E from adrenal
medulla stimulates both types of receptors; effect lasts longer.
• Adrenals release three times more E than NE, so during sympathetic
activation, beta receptor effects predominate
Neurotransmitter release in
sympathetic division
• Peripherally, axons of preganglionic neurons of the SNS and
the PNS emerge from the spinal cord and synapse with
postganglionic neurons at sympathetic and parasympathetic
ganglia, respectively; in both cases, acetylcholine is
the neurotransmitter, acting at nicotinic receptors on
postganglionic neurons.
• Postganglionic neurons then send motor axons to effector organs
and tissues. The catecholamine norepinephrine is released by
postganglionic sympathetic axons and acts at adrenergic
receptors of effector organs. One exception is the postganglionic
axons that innervate sweat glands, which release acetylcholine.
Neurotransmitter release in
sympathetic division
• Furthermore, the adrenal medulla functions as part of the SNS.
Preganglionic axons of the SNS extend to the adrenal gland,
where they stimulate chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla to
release epinephrine (and to a lesser degree norepinephrine)
into the bloodstream.
• Notably, in addition to releasing catecholamines (norepinephrine
and epinephrine), some sympathetic postganglionic
nerves release a number of adrenergic cotransmitters,
including neuropeptide Y, ATP, and substance P, among others.
• In the PNS, acetylcholine, acting at muscarinic receptors, is the
postganglionic neurotransmitter.
Cont’d
• Sweat gland secretion is stimulated by activation of the SNS.
Most of the postganglionic sympathetic neurons innervating
these glands are atypical, releasing the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine instead of norepinephrine.
• Acetylcholine acts on muscarinic receptors, inducing sweat
secretion. However, in some specific areas, such as the palms of
the hands, adrenergic nerves stimulate sweat glands through
the release of norepinephrine, which acts at α1 receptors to
stimulate secretion.
 Neurotransmitter release in ANS
divisions
• Alpha (α) receptors
• Generally stimulated by NE
and E
• Activates G proteins of plasma
membrane
• Activation triggers different
activities in cellAlpha-1
receptors—excitatory
• Alpha-2 receptors—inhibitory
Neurotransmitter release in ANS divisions

• Beta (β) receptors

• Generally stimulated by E
• In many organs (skeletal
muscles, lungs, heart, liver)
• Stimulation of beta
receptors and G protein
activation change target
cell’s metabolic activity
• Three types: beta-1 (β1),
beta-2 (β2), beta-3 (β3)
Neurotransmitter release in ANS
divisions
Neurotransmitter release in the parasympathetic division
• All parasympathetic fibers release acetylcholine (ACh)
• Two types of cholinergic receptors—nicotinic and
muscarinic
Neurotransmitter release in ANS
divisions
1. Nicotinicreceptors
• On all postganglionic
neurons, on adrenal
medullae cells, and at
neuromuscular junctions
of skeletal muscle fibers
• Excitatory
• Stimulated by nicotine
Neurotransmitter release in ANS divisions

2. Muscarinic receptors
• G protein–coupled receptors
• At cholinergic neuromuscular or
neuroglandular junctions in
parasympathetic division and few
cholinergic junctions in
sympathetic division
• Longer-lasting effects than
nicotinic receptors
• Excitatory or inhibitory
• Stimulated by muscarine(toxin
produced by poisonous
mushrooms)
CNS processing
• The autonomic nervous system has as its central components
the hypothalamus, brainstem, and spinal cord; peripherally, it
consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves.
• Areas within the hypothalamus and brainstem regulate and
coordinate various processes through the autonomic nervous
system, including temperature regulation, responses to thirst
and hunger, micturition, respiration, and cardiovascular
function.
• This regulation is in response to sensory input and occurs
through the reciprocal regulation of the SNS and PNS.
CNS processing
HYPOTHALAMUS COORDINATES PHYSIOLOGY AND
BEHAVIOR IN RESPONSE TO VISCERAL SENSORY
INPUTS
Example: Blood Osmolarity Homeostasis
• Visceral Sensory Inputs:
• Blood pressure
• Blood osmolarity

• Hypothalamus Coordinated Outputs

• Autonomic -- action on smooth muscles in central and peripheral vasculature

• Behavioral -- conscious thirst which drives search for fluid intake

• Endocrine -- secretion of vasopressin into blood, which promotes water

reabsorption by kidneys